.. _code_style:


##########
Code Style
##########

.. image:: /_static/photos/33907150054_5ee79e8940_k_d.jpg

If you ask Python programmers what they like most about Python, they will
often cite its high readability.  Indeed, a high level of readability
is at the heart of the design of the Python language, following the
recognized fact that code is read much more often than it is written.

One reason for the high readability of Python code is its relatively
complete set of Code Style guidelines and "Pythonic" idioms.

When a veteran Python developer (a Pythonista) calls portions of
code not "Pythonic", they usually mean that these lines
of code do not follow the common guidelines and fail to express its intent in
what is considered the best (hear: most readable) way.

On some border cases, no best way has been agreed upon on how to express
an intent in Python code, but these cases are rare.


****************
General concepts
****************

Explicit code
~~~~~~~~~~~~~

While any kind of black magic is possible with Python, the
most explicit and straightforward manner is preferred.

**Bad**

.. code-block:: python

    def make_complex(*args):
        x, y = args
        return dict(**locals())

**Good**

.. code-block:: python

    def make_complex(x, y):
        return {'x': x, 'y': y}

In the good code above, x and y are explicitly received from
the caller, and an explicit dictionary is returned. The developer
using this function knows exactly what to do by reading the
first and last lines, which is not the case with the bad example.

One statement per line
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

While some compound statements such as list comprehensions are
allowed and appreciated for their brevity and their expressiveness,
it is bad practice to have two disjointed statements on the same line of code.

**Bad**

.. code-block:: python

    print 'one'; print 'two'

    if x == 1: print 'one'

    if <complex comparison> and <other complex comparison>:
        # do something

**Good**

.. code-block:: python

    print 'one'
    print 'two'

    if x == 1:
        print 'one'

    cond1 = <complex comparison>
    cond2 = <other complex comparison>
    if cond1 and cond2:
        # do something

Function arguments
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Arguments can be passed to functions in four different ways.

1. **Positional arguments** are mandatory and have no default values. They are
   the simplest form of arguments and they can be used for the few function
   arguments that are fully part of the function's meaning and their order is
   natural. For instance, in ``send(message, recipient)`` or ``point(x, y)``
   the user of the function has no difficulty remembering that those two
   functions require two arguments, and in which order.

In those two cases, it is possible to use argument names when calling the
functions and, doing so, it is possible to switch the order of arguments,
calling for instance ``send(recipient='World', message='Hello')`` and
``point(y=2, x=1)`` but this reduces readability and is unnecessarily verbose,
compared to the more straightforward calls to ``send('Hello', 'World')`` and
``point(1, 2)``.

2. **Keyword arguments** are not mandatory and have default values. They are
   often used for optional parameters sent to the function. When a function has
   more than two or three positional parameters, its signature is more difficult
   to remember and using keyword arguments with default values is helpful. For
   instance, a more complete ``send`` function could be defined as
   ``send(message, to, cc=None, bcc=None)``. Here ``cc`` and ``bcc`` are
   optional, and evaluate to ``None`` when they are not passed another value.

Calling a function with keyword arguments can be done in multiple ways in
Python; for example, it is possible to follow the order of arguments in the
definition without explicitly naming the arguments, like in
``send('Hello', 'World', 'Cthulhu', 'God')``, sending a blind carbon copy to
God. It would also be possible to name arguments in another order, like in
``send('Hello again', 'World', bcc='God', cc='Cthulhu')``. Those two
possibilities are better avoided without any strong reason to not follow the
syntax that is the closest to the function definition:
``send('Hello', 'World', cc='Cthulhu', bcc='God')``.

As a side note, following the `YAGNI <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You_ain't_gonna_need_it>`_
principle, it is often harder to remove an optional argument (and its logic
inside the function) that was added "just in case" and is seemingly never used,
than to add a new optional argument and its logic when needed.

3. The **arbitrary argument list** is the third way to pass arguments to a
   function. If the function intention is better expressed by a signature with
   an extensible number of positional arguments, it can be defined with the
   ``*args`` constructs. In the function body, ``args`` will be a tuple of all
   the remaining positional arguments. For example, ``send(message, *args)``
   can be called with each recipient as an argument: ``send('Hello', 'God',
   'Mom', 'Cthulhu')``, and in the function body ``args`` will be equal to
   ``('God', 'Mom', 'Cthulhu')``.

However, this construct has some drawbacks and should be used with caution. If a
function receives a list of arguments of the same nature, it is often more
clear to define it as a function of one argument, that argument being a list or
any sequence. Here, if ``send`` has multiple recipients, it is better to define
it explicitly: ``send(message, recipients)`` and call it with ``send('Hello',
['God', 'Mom', 'Cthulhu'])``. This way, the user of the function can manipulate
the recipient list as a list beforehand, and it opens the possibility to pass
any sequence, including iterators, that cannot be unpacked as other sequences.

4. The **arbitrary keyword argument dictionary** is the last way to pass
   arguments to functions. If the function requires an undetermined series of
   named arguments, it is possible to use the ``**kwargs`` construct. In the
   function body, ``kwargs`` will be a dictionary of all the passed named
   arguments that have not been caught by other keyword arguments in the
   function signature.

The same caution as in the case of *arbitrary argument list* is necessary, for
similar reasons: these powerful techniques are to be used when there is a
proven necessity to use them, and they should not be used if the simpler and
clearer construct is sufficient to express the function's intention.

It is up to the programmer writing the function to determine which arguments
are positional arguments and which are optional keyword arguments, and to
decide whether to use the advanced techniques of arbitrary argument passing. If
the advice above is followed wisely, it is possible and enjoyable to write
Python functions that are:

* easy to read (the name and arguments need no explanations)

* easy to change (adding a new keyword argument does not break other parts of
  the code)

Avoid the magical wand
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A powerful tool for hackers, Python comes with a very rich set of hooks and
tools allowing you to do almost any kind of tricky tricks. For instance, it is
possible to do each of the following:

* change how objects are created and instantiated

* change how the Python interpreter imports modules

* It is even possible (and recommended if needed) to embed C routines in Python.

However, all these options have many drawbacks and it is always better to use
the most straightforward way to achieve your goal. The main drawback is that
readability suffers greatly when using these constructs. Many code analysis
tools, such as pylint or pyflakes, will be unable to parse this "magic" code.

We consider that a Python developer should know about these nearly infinite
possibilities, because it instills confidence that no impassable problem will
be on the way. However, knowing how and particularly when **not** to use
them is very important.

Like a kung fu master, a Pythonista knows how to kill with a single finger, and
never to actually do it.

We are all responsible users
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

As seen above, Python allows many tricks, and some of them are potentially
dangerous. A good example is that any client code can override an object's
properties and methods: there is no "private" keyword in Python. This
philosophy, very different from highly defensive languages like Java, which
give a lot of mechanisms to prevent any misuse, is expressed by the saying: "We
are all responsible users".

This doesn't mean that, for example, no properties are considered private, and
that no proper encapsulation is possible in Python. Rather, instead of relying
on concrete walls erected by the developers between their code and others', the
Python community prefers to rely on a set of conventions indicating that these
elements should not be accessed directly.

The main convention for private properties and implementation details is to
prefix all "internals" with an underscore. If the client code breaks this rule
and accesses these marked elements, any misbehavior or problems encountered if
the code is modified is the responsibility of the client code.

Using this convention generously is encouraged: any method or property that is
not intended to be used by client code should be prefixed with an underscore.
This will guarantee a better separation of duties and easier modification of
existing code; it will always be possible to publicize a private property,
but making a public property private might be a much harder operation.

Returning values
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

When a function grows in complexity it is not uncommon to use multiple return
statements inside the function's body. However, in order to keep a clear intent
and a sustainable readability level, it is preferable to avoid returning
meaningful values from many output points in the body.

There are two main cases for returning values in a function: the result of the
function return when it has been processed normally, and the error cases that
indicate a wrong input parameter or any other reason for the function to not be
able to complete its computation or task.

If you do not wish to raise exceptions for the second case, then returning a
value, such as None or False, indicating that the function could not perform
correctly might be needed. In this case, it is better to return as early as the
incorrect context has been detected. It will help to flatten the structure of
the function: all the code after the return-because-of-error statement can
assume the condition is met to further compute the function's main result.
Having multiple such return statements is often necessary.

However, when a function has multiple main exit points for its normal course,
it becomes difficult to debug the returned result, so it may be preferable to
keep a single exit point. This will also help factoring out some code paths,
and the multiple exit points are a probable indication that such a refactoring
is needed.

.. code-block:: python

   def complex_function(a, b, c):
       if not a:
           return None  # Raising an exception might be better
       if not b:
           return None  # Raising an exception might be better
       # Some complex code trying to compute x from a, b and c
       # Resist temptation to return x if succeeded
       if not x:
           # Some Plan-B computation of x
       return x  # One single exit point for the returned value x will help
                 # when maintaining the code.


******
Idioms
******

A programming idiom, put simply, is a *way* to write code. The notion of
programming idioms is discussed amply at `c2 <http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?ProgrammingIdiom>`_
and at `Stack Overflow <https://stackoverflow.com/questions/302459/what-is-a-programming-idiom>`_.

Idiomatic Python code is often referred to as being *Pythonic*.

Although there usually is one --- and preferably only one --- obvious way to do
it; *the* way to write idiomatic Python code can be non-obvious to Python
beginners. So, good idioms must be consciously acquired.

Some common Python idioms follow:

.. _unpacking-ref:

Unpacking
~~~~~~~~~

If you know the length of a list or tuple, you can assign names to its
elements with unpacking. For example, since ``enumerate()`` will provide
a tuple of two elements for each item in list:

.. code-block:: python

    for index, item in enumerate(some_list):
        # do something with index and item

You can use this to swap variables as well:

.. code-block:: python

    a, b = b, a

Nested unpacking works too:

.. code-block:: python

   a, (b, c) = 1, (2, 3)

In Python 3, a new method of extended unpacking was introduced by
:pep:`3132`:

.. code-block:: python

   a, *rest = [1, 2, 3]
   # a = 1, rest = [2, 3]
   a, *middle, c = [1, 2, 3, 4]
   # a = 1, middle = [2, 3], c = 4

Create an ignored variable
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

If you need to assign something (for instance, in :ref:`unpacking-ref`) but
will not need that variable, use ``__``:

.. code-block:: python

    filename = 'foobar.txt'
    basename, __, ext = filename.rpartition('.')

.. note::

   Many Python style guides recommend the use of a single underscore "``_``"
   for throwaway variables rather than the double underscore "``__``"
   recommended here. The issue is that "``_``" is commonly used as an alias
   for the :func:`~gettext.gettext` function, and is also used at the
   interactive prompt to hold the value of the last operation. Using a
   double underscore instead is just as clear and almost as convenient,
   and eliminates the risk of accidentally interfering with either of
   these other use cases.

Create a length-N list of the same thing
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Use the Python list ``*`` operator:

.. code-block:: python

    four_nones = [None] * 4

Create a length-N list of lists
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Because lists are mutable, the ``*`` operator (as above) will create a list
of N references to the `same` list, which is not likely what you want.
Instead, use a list comprehension:

.. code-block:: python

    four_lists = [[] for __ in xrange(4)]

Note: Use range() instead of xrange() in Python 3.

Create a string from a list
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A common idiom for creating strings is to use :py:meth:`str.join` on an empty
string.

.. code-block:: python

    letters = ['s', 'p', 'a', 'm']
    word = ''.join(letters)

This will set the value of the variable *word* to 'spam'. This idiom can be
applied to lists and tuples.

Searching for an item in a collection
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Sometimes we need to search through a collection of things. Let's look at two
options: lists and sets.

Take the following code for example:

.. code-block:: python

    s = set(['s', 'p', 'a', 'm'])
    l = ['s', 'p', 'a', 'm']

    def lookup_set(s):
        return 's' in s

    def lookup_list(l):
        return 's' in l

Even though both functions look identical, because *lookup_set* is utilizing
the fact that sets in Python are hashtables, the lookup performance
between the two is very different. To determine whether an item is in a list,
Python will have to go through each item until it finds a matching item.
This is time consuming, especially for long lists. In a set, on the other
hand, the hash of the item will tell Python where in the set to look for
a matching item. As a result, the search can be done quickly, even if the
set is large. Searching in dictionaries works the same way. For
more information see this
`StackOverflow <https://stackoverflow.com/questions/513882/python-list-vs-dict-for-look-up-table>`_
page. For detailed information on the amount of time various common operations
take on each of these data structures, see
`this page <https://wiki.python.org/moin/TimeComplexity?>`_.

Because of these differences in performance, it is often a good idea to use
sets or dictionaries instead of lists in cases where:

* The collection will contain a large number of items

* You will be repeatedly searching for items in the collection

* You do not have duplicate items.

For small collections, or collections which you will not frequently be
searching through, the additional time and memory required to set up the
hashtable will often be greater than the time saved by the improved search
speed.


*************
Zen of Python
*************

Also known as :pep:`20`, the guiding principles for Python's design.

.. code-block:: pycon

    >>> import this
    The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

    Beautiful is better than ugly.
    Explicit is better than implicit.
    Simple is better than complex.
    Complex is better than complicated.
    Flat is better than nested.
    Sparse is better than dense.
    Readability counts.
    Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
    Although practicality beats purity.
    Errors should never pass silently.
    Unless explicitly silenced.
    In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
    There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
    Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
    Now is better than never.
    Although never is often better than *right* now.
    If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
    If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
    Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!

For some examples of good Python style, see `these slides from a Python user
group <https://github.com/hblanks/zen-of-python-by-example>`_.


*****
PEP 8
*****

:pep:`8` is the de facto code style guide for Python. A high quality,
easy-to-read version of PEP 8 is also available at `pep8.org <http://pep8.org/>`_.

This is highly recommended reading. The entire Python community does their
best to adhere to the guidelines laid out within this document. Some project
may sway from it from time to time, while others may
`amend its recommendations <http://docs.python-requests.org/en/master/dev/contributing/#kenneth-reitz-s-code-style>`_.

That being said, conforming your Python code to PEP 8 is generally a good idea
and helps make code more consistent when working on projects with other
developers. There is a command-line program, `pycodestyle <https://github.com/PyCQA/pycodestyle>`_
(previously known as ``pep8``), that can check your code for conformance.
Install it by running the following command in your terminal:


.. code-block:: console

    $ pip install pycodestyle


Then run it on a file or series of files to get a report of any violations.

.. code-block:: console

    $ pycodestyle optparse.py
    optparse.py:69:11: E401 multiple imports on one line
    optparse.py:77:1: E302 expected 2 blank lines, found 1
    optparse.py:88:5: E301 expected 1 blank line, found 0
    optparse.py:222:34: W602 deprecated form of raising exception
    optparse.py:347:31: E211 whitespace before '('
    optparse.py:357:17: E201 whitespace after '{'
    optparse.py:472:29: E221 multiple spaces before operator
    optparse.py:544:21: W601 .has_key() is deprecated, use 'in'

Auto-Formatting
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

There are several auto-formatting tools that can reformat your code,
in order to comply with PEP 8.

**autopep8**

The program `autopep8 <https://pypi.org/project/autopep8/>`_ can be used to
automatically reformat code in the PEP 8 style. Install the program with:

.. code-block:: console

    $ pip install autopep8

Use it to format a file in-place with:

.. code-block:: console

    $ autopep8 --in-place optparse.py

Excluding the ``--in-place`` flag will cause the program to output the modified
code directly to the console for review. The ``--aggressive`` flag will perform
more substantial changes and can be applied multiple times for greater effect.

**yapf**

While autopep8 focuses on solving the PEP 8 violations, `yapf <https://github.com/google/yapf>`_
tries to improve the format of your code aside from complying with PEP 8.
This formatter aims at providing as good looking code as a programmer who
writes PEP 8 compliant code.
It gets installed with:

.. code-block:: console

    $ pip install yapf

Run the auto-formatting of a file with:

.. code-block:: console

    $ yapf --in-place optparse.py

Similar to autopep8, running the command without the ``--in-place`` flag will
output the diff for review before applying the changes.

**black**

The auto-formatter `black <https://github.com/psf/black>`_ offers an
opinionated and deterministic reformatting of your code base.
Its main focus lies in providing a uniform code style without the need of
configuration throughout its users. Hence, users of black are able to forget
about formatting altogether. Also, due to the deterministic approach minimal
git diffs with only the relevant changes are guaranteed. You can install the
tool as follows:

.. code-block:: console

    $ pip install black

A python file can be formatted with:

.. code-block:: console

    $ black optparse.py

Adding the ``--diff`` flag provides the code modification for review without
direct application.

***********
Conventions
***********

Here are some conventions you should follow to make your code easier to read.

Check if a variable equals a constant
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

You don't need to explicitly compare a value to True, or None, or 0 -- you can
just add it to the if statement. See `Truth Value Testing
<http://docs.python.org/library/stdtypes.html#truth-value-testing>`_ for a
list of what is considered false.

**Bad**:

.. code-block:: python

    if attr == True:
        print 'True!'

    if attr == None:
        print 'attr is None!'

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    # Just check the value
    if attr:
        print 'attr is truthy!'

    # or check for the opposite
    if not attr:
        print 'attr is falsey!'

    # or, since None is considered false, explicitly check for it
    if attr is None:
        print 'attr is None!'

Access a Dictionary Element
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Don't use the :py:meth:`dict.has_key` method. Instead, use ``x in d`` syntax,
or pass a default argument to :py:meth:`dict.get`.

**Bad**:

.. code-block:: python

    d = {'hello': 'world'}
    if d.has_key('hello'):
        print d['hello']    # prints 'world'
    else:
        print 'default_value'

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    d = {'hello': 'world'}

    print d.get('hello', 'default_value') # prints 'world'
    print d.get('thingy', 'default_value') # prints 'default_value'

    # Or:
    if 'hello' in d:
        print d['hello']

Short Ways to Manipulate Lists
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

`List comprehensions
<http://docs.python.org/tutorial/datastructures.html#list-comprehensions>`_
provide a powerful, concise way to work with lists.

`Generator expressions
<http://docs.python.org/tutorial/classes.html#generator-expressions>`_
follow almost the same syntax as list comprehensions but return a generator
instead of a list. 

Creating a new list requires more work and uses more memory. If you are just going
to loop through the new list, prefer using an iterator instead.

**Bad**:

.. code-block:: python

    # needlessly allocates a list of all (gpa, name) entires in memory
    valedictorian = max([(student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates])

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    valedictorian = max((student.gpa, student.name) for student in graduates)


Use list comprehensions when you really need to create a second list, for
example if you need to use the result multiple times.


If your logic is too complicated for a short list comprehension or generator
expression, consider using a generator function instead of returning a list. 

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    def make_batches(items, batch_size):
        """
        >>> list(make_batches([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], batch_size=3))
        [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5]]
        """
        current_batch = []
        for item in items:
            current_batch.append(item)
            if len(current_batch) == batch_size:
                yield current_batch
                current_batch = []
        yield current_batch


Never use a list comprehension just for its side effects. 

**Bad**:

.. code-block:: python

    [print(x) for x in sequence]

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    for x in sequence:
        print(x) 


Filtering a list
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

**Bad**:

Never remove items from a list while you are iterating through it.

.. code-block:: python

    # Filter elements greater than 4
    a = [3, 4, 5]
    for i in a:
        if i > 4:
            a.remove(i)

Don't make multiple passes through the list.

.. code-block:: python

    while i in a:
        a.remove(i)

**Good**:

Use a list comprehension or generator expression. 

.. code-block:: python

    # comprehensions create a new list object
    filtered_values = [value for value in sequence if value != x]

    # generators don't create another list
    filtered_values = (value for value in sequence if value != x)


Possible side effects of modifying the original list
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

Modifying the original list can be risky if there are other variables referencing it. But you can use *slice assignment* if you really want to do that.

.. code-block:: python

    # replace the contents of the original list
    sequence[::] = [value for value in sequence if value != x]


Modifying the values in a list
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
**Bad**:

Remember that assignment never creates a new object. If two or more variables refer to the same list, changing one of them changes them all.

.. code-block:: python

    # Add three to all list members.
    a = [3, 4, 5]
    b = a                     # a and b refer to the same list object

    for i in range(len(a)):
        a[i] += 3             # b[i] also changes

**Good**:

It's safer to create a new list object and leave the original alone.

.. code-block:: python

    a = [3, 4, 5]
    b = a

    # assign the variable "a" to a new list without changing "b"
    a = [i + 3 for i in a]

Use :py:func:`enumerate` keep a count of your place in the list.

.. code-block:: python

    a = [3, 4, 5]
    for i, item in enumerate(a):
        print i, item
    # prints
    # 0 3
    # 1 4
    # 2 5

The :py:func:`enumerate` function has better readability than handling a
counter manually. Moreover, it is better optimized for iterators.

Read From a File
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Use the ``with open`` syntax to read from files. This will automatically close
files for you.

**Bad**:

.. code-block:: python

    f = open('file.txt')
    a = f.read()
    print a
    f.close()

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    with open('file.txt') as f:
        for line in f:
            print line

The ``with`` statement is better because it will ensure you always close the
file, even if an exception is raised inside the ``with`` block.

Line Continuations
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

When a logical line of code is longer than the accepted limit, you need to
split it over multiple physical lines. The Python interpreter will join
consecutive lines if the last character of the line is a backslash. This is
helpful in some cases, but should usually be avoided because of its fragility:
a white space added to the end of the line, after the backslash, will break the
code and may have unexpected results.

A better solution is to use parentheses around your elements. Left with an
unclosed parenthesis on an end-of-line the Python interpreter will join the
next line until the parentheses are closed. The same behavior holds for curly
and square braces.

**Bad**:

.. code-block:: python

    my_very_big_string = """For a long time I used to go to bed early. Sometimes, \
        when I had put out my candle, my eyes would close so quickly that I had not even \
        time to say “I’m going to sleep.”"""

    from some.deep.module.inside.a.module import a_nice_function, another_nice_function, \
        yet_another_nice_function

**Good**:

.. code-block:: python

    my_very_big_string = (
        "For a long time I used to go to bed early. Sometimes, "
        "when I had put out my candle, my eyes would close so quickly "
        "that I had not even time to say “I’m going to sleep.”"
    )

    from some.deep.module.inside.a.module import (
        a_nice_function, another_nice_function, yet_another_nice_function)

However, more often than not, having to split a long logical line is a sign that
you are trying to do too many things at the same time, which may hinder
readability.
