Add comprehensive docstrings, expand API reference, upgrade to Starlette 1.0

- Add docstrings to all undocumented public methods across API, Request,
  Response, Router, Route, BackgroundQueue, and related classes
- Expand api.rst with autodoc sections for RouteGroup, BackgroundQueue,
  QueryDict, and RateLimiter
- Update starlette dependency to >=1.0
- Drop Python 3.9 support (required by Starlette 1.0), minimum is now 3.10
- Bump version to 3.4.0

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.6 (1M context) <noreply@anthropic.com>

.github/workflows/docs.yaml

@@ -11,6 +11,9 @@ concurrency:
   group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.ref }}
   cancel-in-progress: true
 
+permissions:
+  contents: write
+
 jobs:
 
   documentation:
@@ -40,3 +43,11 @@ jobs:
 
     - name: Build static HTML documentation
       run: sphinx-build -W --keep-going docs/source docs/build
+
+    - name: Deploy to GitHub Pages
+      if: github.ref == 'refs/heads/main' && github.event_name == 'push'
+      uses: peaceiris/actions-gh-pages@v4
+      with:
+        github_token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+        publish_dir: ./docs/build
+        cname: responder.kennethreitz.org

CHANGELOG.md

@@ -7,6 +7,44 @@ this project adheres to [Semantic Versioning](https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0.htm
 
 ## [Unreleased]
 
+## [v3.2.0] - 2026-03-22
+
+### Added
+
+- Pydantic auto-validation: `request_model` validates input, returns 422 on failure
+- Pydantic auto-serialization: `response_model` strips extra fields from responses
+- Server-Sent Events: `@resp.sse` for real-time streaming
+- `resp.stream_file()` for streaming large files without loading into memory
+- `@api.after_request()` hooks
+- `api.group("/prefix")` for route groups and API versioning
+- `api.graphql("/path", schema=schema)` one-liner GraphQL setup
+- `api = responder.API(request_id=True)` for automatic request ID generation
+- Built-in rate limiter: `RateLimiter(requests=100, period=60).install(api)`
+- MessagePack format support: `await req.media("msgpack")`
+- `req.is_json`, `req.path_params`, `req.client` properties
+- `api.exception_handler()` decorator for custom error handling
+- Lifespan context manager support
+- `uuid` and `path` route convertors
+- PEP 561 `py.typed` marker
+- Pydantic support for OpenAPI schema generation
+
+### Changed
+
+- Dependencies flattened: `pip install responder` gets everything
+- Core deps reduced to starlette + uvicorn
+- TestClient lazy-loaded (no httpx import in production)
+- Before-request hooks can short-circuit by setting status code
+- Removed poethepoet task runner
+
+### Fixed
+
+- Multipart parser losing headers when parts have multiple headers
+- `url_for()` with typed route params (`{id:int}`)
+- `resp.body` encoding crash on bytes content
+- GraphQL text query missing `await`
+- Streaming responses not sending Content-Type headers
+- Python 3.9 compatibility for union type syntax
+
 ## [v3.0.0] - 2026-03-22
 
 ### Added

README.md

@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ if __name__ == "__main__":
 
     $ pip install responder
 
-That's it. Supports Python 3.9+.
+That's it. Supports Python 3.10+.
 
 ## The Basics
 

docs/source/api.rst

@@ -1,35 +1,99 @@
+API Reference
+=============
 
-API Documentation
-=================
+This page documents Responder's public Python API. For usage examples
+and explanations, see the :doc:`quickstart` and :doc:`tour`.
 
 
-Web Service (API) Class
------------------------
+The API Class
+-------------
+
+The central object of every Responder application. It holds your routes,
+middleware, templates, and configuration. Create one at the top of your
+module and use it to define your entire web service.
+
 .. module:: responder
 
 .. autoclass:: API
     :inherited-members:
 
-Requests & Responses
---------------------
 
+Request
+-------
+
+The request object is passed into every view as the first argument. It
+gives you access to everything the client sent — headers, query
+parameters, the request body, cookies, and more.
+
+Most properties are synchronous, but reading the body requires ``await``
+because it involves I/O.
 
 .. autoclass:: Request
     :inherited-members:
 
+
+Response
+--------
+
+The response object is passed into every view as the second argument.
+Mutate it to control what gets sent back to the client — the body,
+status code, headers, and cookies.
+
 .. autoclass:: Response
     :inherited-members:
 
 
-Utility Functions
------------------
+Route Groups
+------------
 
-.. autofunction:: responder.API.status_codes.is_100
+Group related routes under a shared URL prefix — useful for API versioning
+and organizing large applications.
 
-.. autofunction:: responder.API.status_codes.is_200
+.. autoclass:: responder.api.RouteGroup
+    :members:
 
-.. autofunction:: responder.API.status_codes.is_300
 
-.. autofunction:: responder.API.status_codes.is_400
+Background Queue
+----------------
 
-.. autofunction:: responder.API.status_codes.is_500
+Run tasks in background threads without blocking the response. Available
+as ``api.background``.
+
+.. autoclass:: responder.background.BackgroundQueue
+    :members:
+
+
+Query Dict
+----------
+
+A dictionary subclass for query string parameters with multi-value support.
+
+.. autoclass:: responder.models.QueryDict
+    :members:
+
+
+Rate Limiter
+------------
+
+In-memory token bucket rate limiter. Limits requests per client IP address
+and returns ``429 Too Many Requests`` when exceeded.
+
+.. autoclass:: responder.ext.ratelimit.RateLimiter
+    :members:
+
+
+Status Code Helpers
+-------------------
+
+Convenience functions for checking which category a status code falls
+into. Useful in middleware and after-request hooks.
+
+.. autofunction:: responder.status_codes.is_100
+
+.. autofunction:: responder.status_codes.is_200
+
+.. autofunction:: responder.status_codes.is_300
+
+.. autofunction:: responder.status_codes.is_400
+
+.. autofunction:: responder.status_codes.is_500

docs/source/cli.rst

@@ -1,174 +1,81 @@
-Responder CLI
-=============
+Command Line Interface
+======================
 
-Responder installs a command line program ``responder``. Use it to launch
-a Responder application from a file or module, either located on a local
-or remote filesystem, or object store.
-
-Launch Module Entrypoint
-------------------------
-
-For loading a Responder application from a Python module, you will refer to
-its ``API()`` instance using a `Python entry point object reference`_ that
-points to a Python object. It is either in the form ``importable.module``,
-or ``importable.module:object.attr``.
-
-A basic invocation command to launch a Responder application:
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    responder run acme.app
-
-The command above assumes a Python package ``acme`` including an ``app``
-module ``acme/app.py`` that includes an attribute ``api`` that refers
-to a ``responder.API`` instance, reflecting the typical layout of
-a standard Responder application.
-
-Loading a Responder application using an entrypoint specification will
-inherit the capacities of `Python's import system`_, as implemented by
-`importlib`_.
-
-Launch Local File
------------------
-
-Acquire a minimal example single-file application, ``helloworld.py`` [1]_,
-to your local filesystem, giving you the chance to edit it, and launch the
-Responder HTTP service.
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    wget https://github.com/kennethreitz/responder/raw/refs/heads/main/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run helloworld.py
-
-.. note::
-
-    To validate the example application, invoke a HTTP request, for example using
-    `curl`_, `HTTPie`_, or your favourite browser at hand.
-
-    .. code-block:: shell
-
-        http http://127.0.0.1:5042/Hello
-
-    The response is no surprise.
-
-    ::
-
-        HTTP/1.1 200 OK
-        content-length: 13
-        content-type: text/plain
-        date: Sat, 26 Oct 2024 13:16:55 GMT
-        encoding: utf-8
-        server: uvicorn
-
-        Hello, world!
-
-.. [1] The Responder application `helloworld.py`_ implements a basic echo handler.
-
-Launch Remote File
-------------------
-
-You can also launch a single-file application where its Python file is stored
-on a remote location.
-
-Responder supports all filesystem adapters compatible with `fsspec`_, and
-installs the adapters for Azure Blob Storage (az), Google Cloud Storage (gs),
-GitHub, HTTP, and AWS S3 by default.
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    # Works 1:1.
-    responder run https://github.com/kennethreitz/responder/raw/refs/heads/main/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run github://kennethreitz:responder@/examples/helloworld.py
-
-If you need access other kinds of remote targets, see the `list of
-fsspec-supported filesystems and protocols`_. The next section enumerates
-a few synthetic examples. The corresponding storage buckets do not even
-exist, so don't expect those commands to work.
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    # Azure Blob Storage, Google Cloud Storage, and AWS S3.
-    responder run az://kennethreitz-assets/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run gs://kennethreitz-assets/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run s3://kennethreitz-assets/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-
-    # Hadoop Distributed File System (hdfs), SSH File Transfer Protocol (sftp),
-    # Common Internet File System (smb), Web-based Distributed Authoring and
-    # Versioning (webdav).
-    responder run hdfs://kennethreitz-assets/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run sftp://user@host/kennethreitz/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run smb://workgroup;user:password@server:port/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-    responder run webdav+https://user:password@server:port/responder/examples/helloworld.py
-
-.. tip::
-
-    In order to install support for all filesystem types supported by fsspec, run:
-
-    .. code-block:: shell
-
-        uv pip install 'fsspec[full]'
-
-    When using ``uv``, this concludes within an acceptable time of approx.
-    25 seconds. If you need to be more selectively instead of using ``full``,
-    choose from one or multiple of the available `fsspec extras`_, which are:
-
-    abfs, arrow, dask, dropbox, fuse, gcs, git, github, hdfs, http, oci, s3,
-    sftp, smb, ssh.
-
-Launch with Non-Standard Instance Name
---------------------------------------
-
-By default, Responder will acquire an ``responder.API`` instance using the
-symbol name ``api`` from the specified Python module.
-
-If your main application file uses a different name than ``api``, please
-append the designated symbol name to the launch target address.
-
-It works like this for module entrypoints and local files:
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    responder run acme.app:service
-    responder run /path/to/acme/app.py:service
-
-It works like this for URLs:
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    responder run http://app.server.local/path/to/acme/app.py#service
-
-Within your ``app.py``, the instance would have been defined to use
-the ``service`` symbol name instead of ``api``, like this:
-
-.. code-block:: python
-
-    service = responder.API()
-
-Build JavaScript Application
-----------------------------
-
-The ``build`` subcommand invokes ``npm run build``, optionally accepting
-a target directory. By default, it uses the current working directory,
-where it expects a regular NPM ``package.json`` file.
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    responder build
-
-When specifying a target directory, Responder will change to that
-directory beforehand.
-
-.. code-block:: shell
-
-    responder build /path/to/project
+Responder installs a ``responder`` command that lets you launch
+applications from the terminal. You can point it at a Python module,
+a local file, or even a URL — and it will find your ``API`` instance
+and start serving.
 
 
-.. _curl: https://curl.se/
-.. _fsspec: https://filesystem-spec.readthedocs.io/en/latest/
-.. _fsspec extras: https://github.com/fsspec/filesystem_spec/blob/2024.12.0/pyproject.toml#L27-L69
-.. _helloworld.py: https://github.com/kennethreitz/responder/blob/main/examples/helloworld.py
-.. _HTTPie: https://httpie.io/docs/cli
-.. _importlib: https://docs.python.org/3/library/importlib.html
-.. _list of fsspec-supported filesystems and protocols: https://github.com/fsspec/universal_pathlib#currently-supported-filesystems-and-protocols
-.. _Python entry point object reference: https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/entry-points/
-.. _Python's import system: https://docs.python.org/3/reference/import.html
+Launching from a Module
+-----------------------
+
+The most common way to run a Responder application in production. Use
+Python's standard dotted module path::
+
+    $ responder run acme.app
+
+This imports ``acme.app`` and looks for an attribute called ``api``
+(a ``responder.API`` instance). It's the same import system Python
+uses everywhere — your ``PYTHONPATH`` and virtual environment are
+respected.
+
+
+Launching from a File
+---------------------
+
+During development, you often have a single file you want to run::
+
+    $ responder run helloworld.py
+
+This loads the file directly and starts the server. Quick and easy for
+prototyping and single-file applications.
+
+You can test it with a simple HTTP request::
+
+    $ curl http://127.0.0.1:5042/hello
+    hello, world!
+
+
+Launching from a URL
+--------------------
+
+Responder can fetch and run a Python file from any URL — great for
+demos, sharing examples, and running code from GitHub::
+
+    $ responder run https://github.com/kennethreitz/responder/raw/refs/heads/main/examples/helloworld.py
+
+This also works with ``github://`` URLs and any filesystem protocol
+supported by `fsspec <https://filesystem-spec.readthedocs.io/>`_::
+
+    $ responder run github://kennethreitz:responder@/examples/helloworld.py
+
+Cloud storage is supported too — Azure Blob Storage, Google Cloud
+Storage, S3, HDFS, SFTP, and more. Install ``fsspec[full]`` for all
+protocols::
+
+    $ uv pip install 'fsspec[full]'
+
+
+Custom Instance Names
+---------------------
+
+By default, Responder looks for an attribute called ``api``. If your
+application uses a different name, specify it with a colon::
+
+    $ responder run acme.app:service
+    $ responder run myapp.py:application
+
+For URLs, use a fragment::
+
+    $ responder run https://example.com/app.py#service
+
+
+Building Frontend Assets
+-------------------------
+
+If your project includes a JavaScript frontend with a ``package.json``,
+the ``build`` subcommand runs ``npm run build``::
+
+    $ responder build
+    $ responder build /path/to/frontend

docs/source/deployment.rst

@@ -1,34 +1,32 @@
 Deployment
 ==========
 
-Responder applications are standard ASGI apps. You can deploy them anywhere
-you'd deploy a Python web service.
+Responder applications are standard `ASGI <https://asgi.readthedocs.io/>`_
+apps. ASGI (Asynchronous Server Gateway Interface) is the modern successor
+to WSGI — it supports async, WebSockets, and HTTP/2. This means you can
+deploy a Responder app anywhere that runs Python, using any ASGI server.
 
 
 Running Locally
 ---------------
 
-The simplest way to run your application::
-
-    # api.py
-    import responder
-
-    api = responder.API()
-
-    @api.route("/")
-    def hello(req, resp):
-        resp.text = "hello, world!"
+During development, ``api.run()`` is all you need::
 
     if __name__ == "__main__":
         api.run()
 
-This starts a production uvicorn server on ``127.0.0.1:5042``.
+This starts a `uvicorn <https://www.uvicorn.org/>`_ server on
+``127.0.0.1:5042``. Uvicorn is a lightning-fast ASGI server built on
+`uvloop <https://uvloop.readthedocs.io/>`_ — it handles thousands of
+concurrent connections efficiently and protects against slowloris attacks,
+making a reverse proxy like nginx optional for many deployments.
 
 
 Docker
 ------
 
-A minimal Dockerfile for deploying a Responder application::
+Docker is the most common way to package and deploy web applications.
+Here's a minimal Dockerfile::
 
     FROM python:3.13-slim
     WORKDIR /app
@@ -43,44 +41,63 @@ Build and run::
     $ docker build -t myapi .
     $ docker run -p 8000:80 myapi
 
+The ``python:3.13-slim`` image is about 150MB — small enough for fast
+deploys but includes everything you need. For even smaller images, you
+can use ``python:3.13-alpine``, though some packages may need extra
+build dependencies.
+
 
 Cloud Platforms
 ---------------
 
-Responder automatically honors the ``PORT`` environment variable, which is
-set by most cloud platforms. When ``PORT`` is set, Responder binds to
-``0.0.0.0`` on that port automatically.
+Responder automatically honors the ``PORT`` environment variable. When
+``PORT`` is set, the server binds to ``0.0.0.0`` on that port — this is
+the convention that virtually every cloud platform uses.
 
-This works out of the box with:
+This means zero configuration on:
 
-- **Fly.io**
-- **Railway**
-- **Render**
-- **Google Cloud Run**
-- **Azure Container Apps**
-- **AWS App Runner**
+- **Fly.io** — ``fly launch`` and you're done
+- **Railway** — push your code, Railway sets ``PORT``
+- **Render** — set start command to ``python api.py``
+- **Google Cloud Run** — containerize and deploy
+- **Azure Container Apps** — same pattern
+- **AWS App Runner** — and here too
 
-Just deploy your code and set the start command to ``python api.py``.
+The pattern is always the same: deploy your code, set the start command
+to ``python api.py``, and the platform handles the rest.
 
 
 Uvicorn Directly
 ----------------
 
-For more control over the production server, you can bypass ``api.run()``
-and use uvicorn directly::
+For production deployments where you want more control, bypass
+``api.run()`` and use uvicorn directly::
 
     $ uvicorn api:api --host 0.0.0.0 --port 8000 --workers 4
 
-This gives you access to all of uvicorn's options: worker count, SSL
-certificates, access logging, and more. See the
-`uvicorn documentation <https://www.uvicorn.org/>`_ for details.
+The ``--workers`` flag spawns multiple processes, each handling requests
+independently. A good starting point is 2-4 workers per CPU core.
+
+Uvicorn supports many options — SSL certificates, access logging, graceful
+shutdown timeouts, and more. See the
+`uvicorn documentation <https://www.uvicorn.org/deployment/>`_ for details.
 
 
 Reverse Proxy
 -------------
 
-In production, you may want to place Responder behind a reverse proxy like
-nginx or Caddy for SSL termination, load balancing, or serving static assets.
+For high-traffic production deployments, you may want a reverse proxy like
+`nginx <https://nginx.org/>`_ or `Caddy <https://caddyserver.com/>`_ in
+front of your application for:
+
+- **SSL/TLS termination** — let the proxy handle HTTPS certificates
+- **Load balancing** — distribute traffic across multiple app instances
+- **Static asset serving** — offload static files to the proxy
+- **Rate limiting** — at the infrastructure level
 
 Responder's ``TrustedHostMiddleware`` and ``HTTPSRedirectMiddleware`` work
-correctly behind proxies that set standard forwarding headers.
+correctly behind proxies that set standard forwarding headers
+(``X-Forwarded-For``, ``X-Forwarded-Proto``).
+
+That said, uvicorn is production-ready on its own. Many applications run
+uvicorn directly without a reverse proxy and do just fine.

docs/source/guide-config.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,172 @@
+Configuration
+=============
+
+Every application needs different settings for different environments —
+debug mode in development, real secrets in production, different database
+URLs for testing. This guide covers how to manage configuration cleanly.
+
+
+Environment Variables
+---------------------
+
+The simplest and most universal approach. Environment variables work
+everywhere — locally, in Docker, on cloud platforms — and keep secrets
+out of your source code::
+
+    import os
+    import responder
+
+    api = responder.API(
+        debug=os.getenv("DEBUG", "false").lower() == "true",
+        secret_key=os.environ["SECRET_KEY"],
+        cors=os.getenv("CORS_ENABLED", "false").lower() == "true",
+    )
+
+Some variables Responder handles automatically:
+
+- ``PORT`` — when set, the server binds to ``0.0.0.0`` on this port
+
+Set variables in your shell::
+
+    $ export SECRET_KEY="your-secret-here"
+    $ export DEBUG=true
+    $ python app.py
+
+Or in a ``.env`` file (don't commit this to git)::
+
+    SECRET_KEY=your-secret-here
+    DEBUG=true
+
+
+Using .env Files
+----------------
+
+For local development, a ``.env`` file is convenient. Install
+``python-dotenv`` and load it at the top of your app::
+
+    $ uv pip install python-dotenv
+
+::
+
+    from dotenv import load_dotenv
+    load_dotenv()
+
+    import os
+    import responder
+
+    api = responder.API(
+        secret_key=os.environ["SECRET_KEY"],
+    )
+
+Add ``.env`` to your ``.gitignore`` — never commit secrets.
+
+
+Configuration Class Pattern
+----------------------------
+
+For larger applications, a configuration class keeps things organized::
+
+    import os
+
+    class Config:
+        SECRET_KEY = os.environ.get("SECRET_KEY", "dev-secret")
+        DEBUG = os.environ.get("DEBUG", "false").lower() == "true"
+        DATABASE_URL = os.environ.get("DATABASE_URL", "sqlite:///dev.db")
+        CORS_ORIGINS = os.environ.get("CORS_ORIGINS", "").split(",")
+
+    config = Config()
+
+    api = responder.API(
+        debug=config.DEBUG,
+        secret_key=config.SECRET_KEY,
+        cors=bool(config.CORS_ORIGINS[0]),
+        cors_params={"allow_origins": config.CORS_ORIGINS},
+    )
+
+This makes it easy to see all your settings in one place.
+
+
+Secret Key
+----------
+
+The ``secret_key`` is used to sign session cookies. If someone knows your
+secret key, they can forge session data and impersonate any user.
+
+Rules:
+
+- **Never use the default** in production
+- **Generate a random key**: ``python -c "import secrets; print(secrets.token_hex(32))"``
+- **Store it in an environment variable**, not in code
+- **Rotate it** if it's ever compromised (this invalidates all sessions)
+
+::
+
+    api = responder.API(secret_key=os.environ["SECRET_KEY"])
+
+
+Debug Mode
+----------
+
+Debug mode controls error page behavior:
+
+- **On** (``debug=True``): detailed error pages with tracebacks. Never
+  use this in production — it exposes your source code.
+- **Off** (``debug=False``): generic error pages. This is the default.
+
+::
+
+    api = responder.API(debug=True)  # development only
+
+A common pattern is to read it from the environment::
+
+    api = responder.API(debug=os.getenv("DEBUG") == "true")
+
+
+Allowed Hosts
+-------------
+
+In production, always set ``allowed_hosts`` to prevent Host header
+attacks. This should match the domain names your application serves::
+
+    api = responder.API(
+        allowed_hosts=["example.com", "www.example.com"],
+    )
+
+In development, you can use ``["*"]`` (the default) or specific local
+addresses::
+
+    api = responder.API(allowed_hosts=["localhost", "127.0.0.1"])
+
+
+Putting It All Together
+-----------------------
+
+A production-ready configuration setup::
+
+    import os
+    from dotenv import load_dotenv
+
+    load_dotenv()
+
+    import responder
+
+    api = responder.API(
+        debug=os.getenv("DEBUG", "false") == "true",
+        secret_key=os.environ["SECRET_KEY"],
+        allowed_hosts=os.getenv("ALLOWED_HOSTS", "*").split(","),
+        cors=bool(os.getenv("CORS_ORIGINS")),
+        cors_params={
+            "allow_origins": os.getenv("CORS_ORIGINS", "").split(","),
+            "allow_methods": ["GET", "POST", "PUT", "DELETE"],
+        },
+    )
+
+With a ``.env`` file for local development::
+
+    SECRET_KEY=dev-secret-do-not-use-in-prod
+    DEBUG=true
+    ALLOWED_HOSTS=localhost,127.0.0.1
+    CORS_ORIGINS=http://localhost:3000
+
+And environment variables set properly in production (via your cloud
+platform's dashboard, Docker secrets, or a secrets manager).

docs/source/index.rst

@@ -16,36 +16,42 @@ A familiar HTTP Service Framework for Python.
    if __name__ == '__main__':
        api.run()
 
-Powered by `Starlette`_ and `uvicorn`_. The ``async`` is optional.
+Powered by `Starlette`_, `uvicorn`_, and good intentions. The ``async`` is optional.
 
 
 The Idea
 --------
 
-Responder takes the best ideas from `Flask`_ and `Falcon`_ and brings them
-together into one clean framework.
+If you've ever used `Flask`_, the routing will look familiar. If you've
+used `Falcon`_, the request/response pattern will click immediately. And
+if you've used `Requests`_ — well, you'll feel right at home.
 
-The request and response objects are passed into every view and mutated
-directly — no return values, no boilerplate. If you've used Requests,
-you'll feel right at home. If you've used Flask, the routing will look
-familiar. If you've used Falcon, the ``req`` / ``resp`` pattern will
-click immediately.
+Responder takes these ideas and brings them together. Every view receives
+a request and a response. You read from one and write to the other. No
+return values, no special response classes, no boilerplate.
 
-- ``resp.text`` sends back text. ``resp.html`` sends back HTML.
-- ``resp.media`` sends back JSON — or YAML, if the client asks for it.
+- ``resp.text`` sends text. ``resp.html`` sends HTML. ``resp.media`` sends JSON.
 - ``resp.file("path")`` serves a file. ``resp.content`` sends raw bytes.
 - ``req.headers`` is case-insensitive. ``req.params`` holds query parameters.
-- ``resp.status_code``, ``req.method``, ``req.url`` — the usual suspects.
+- ``resp.status_code``, ``req.method``, ``req.url`` — the familiar ones.
 
-Content negotiation happens automatically. Set ``resp.media`` to a dict
-and Responder figures out the rest.
+Set ``resp.media`` to a dict and the right thing happens. If the client
+asks for YAML, it gets YAML. Content negotiation is automatic.
 
-Responder and `FastAPI`_ share DNA — both are built on Starlette, both
-appeared around the same time, and both pushed Python's ASGI ecosystem
-forward. FastAPI went deep on type annotations and automatic validation.
-Responder went for a mutable request/response pattern and a simpler,
-more familiar API. Both projects are better for the other existing, and
-you should use whichever feels right for what you're building.
+Responder and `FastAPI`_ are siblings — both built on Starlette, both
+born around the same time, both part of the push that made ASGI the
+future of Python web services. FastAPI went deep on type annotations
+and automatic validation. Responder went for simplicity and a mutable
+request/response pattern. Both projects are better for the other
+existing. Use whichever feels right.
+
+This is a passion project. It exists because building a web framework
+from scratch is one of the best ways to understand how the web works.
+It's a great fit for personal projects, prototyping, teaching, research,
+and anyone who values a clean API over a sprawling ecosystem. If you
+need battle-tested infrastructure at scale, FastAPI and Django will
+serve you well. If you want something small, expressive, and fun to
+work with — welcome.
 
 
 What You Get
@@ -80,7 +86,7 @@ Installation
 
     $ uv pip install responder
 
-Python 3.9 and above. That's it.
+Python 3.10 and above. That's it.
 
 
 .. toctree::
@@ -94,6 +100,18 @@ Python 3.9 and above. That's it.
    api
    cli
 
+.. toctree::
+   :maxdepth: 2
+   :caption: Tutorials
+
+   tutorial-rest
+   tutorial-sqlalchemy
+   tutorial-auth
+   tutorial-websockets
+   tutorial-middleware
+   tutorial-flask
+   guide-config
+
 .. toctree::
    :maxdepth: 1
    :caption: Project
@@ -109,3 +127,4 @@ Python 3.9 and above. That's it.
 .. _Falcon: https://falconframework.org/
 .. _FastAPI: https://fastapi.tiangolo.com/
 .. _GraphQL: https://graphql.org/
+.. _Requests: https://requests.readthedocs.io/

docs/source/quickstart.rst

@@ -2,164 +2,229 @@ Quick Start
 ===========
 
 This guide will walk you through the basics of building a web service with
-Responder. By the end, you'll know how to declare routes, handle requests,
-send responses, render templates, and process background tasks.
+Responder. By the end, you'll understand how HTTP requests and responses
+work, how to define routes, read data from clients, send data back, render
+HTML templates, and process work in the background.
 
 
 Create a Web Service
 --------------------
 
-The first thing you need to do is declare a web service. This is the central
-object that holds all your routes, middleware, and configuration::
+Every web application starts with a single object — the application
+instance. In Responder, this is the ``API`` class. It holds your routes,
+middleware, templates, and configuration. Think of it as the central
+nervous system of your web service::
 
     import responder
 
     api = responder.API()
 
+That's it. One import, one line. You now have a fully functional ASGI
+application with gzip compression, static file serving, session support,
+and a production-ready server — all wired up and ready to go.
+
 
 Hello World
 -----------
 
-Next, add a route. Here, we'll make the root URL say "hello, world!"::
+A web service isn't very useful until it can respond to requests. In HTTP,
+a *route* maps a URL path to a function that handles it. When a client
+(like a browser or ``curl``) sends a request to that path, your function
+runs and produces a response.
+
+Here's the simplest possible route::
 
     @api.route("/")
     def hello_world(req, resp):
         resp.text = "hello, world!"
 
-Every view receives a ``req`` (request) and ``resp`` (response) object. You
-don't need to return anything — just mutate the response directly.
+Two things to notice:
+
+1. Every view function receives two arguments: ``req`` (the incoming
+   request) and ``resp`` (the outgoing response).
+2. You don't return anything. Instead, you *mutate* the response object
+   directly. This is a deliberate design choice — it keeps the API
+   consistent whether you're setting text, JSON, headers, cookies, or
+   status codes.
 
 
 Run the Server
 --------------
 
-Start your web service with ``api.run()``::
+Start your web service with a single call::
 
     api.run()
 
-This spins up a production-grade uvicorn server on port ``5042``, ready for
-incoming HTTP requests.
+This spins up a production-grade `uvicorn <https://www.uvicorn.org/>`_
+server on port ``5042``, ready for incoming HTTP requests. Open
+``http://localhost:5042`` in your browser and you'll see your hello world
+response.
 
 You can customize the port with ``api.run(port=8000)``. The ``PORT``
 environment variable is also honored automatically — when set, Responder
-binds to ``0.0.0.0`` on that port, which is what cloud platforms like
-Fly.io, Railway, and Google Cloud Run expect.
+binds to ``0.0.0.0`` on that port, which is what cloud platforms expect.
 
 .. note::
 
    Both sync and async views are supported. The ``async`` keyword is always
-   optional — use it when you need to ``await`` something.
+   optional — use it when you need to ``await`` something, like reading a
+   request body or querying a database.
 
 
 Route Parameters
 ----------------
 
-If you want dynamic URLs, use Python's familiar f-string syntax to declare
-variables in your routes::
+Static URLs like ``/about`` are useful, but most applications need dynamic
+routes — URLs that contain variable data, like a user ID or a product slug.
+
+In Responder, you declare route parameters using Python's f-string syntax::
 
     @api.route("/hello/{who}")
     def hello_to(req, resp, *, who):
         resp.text = f"hello, {who}!"
 
 A ``GET`` request to ``/hello/world`` will respond with ``hello, world!``.
+A request to ``/hello/guido`` will respond with ``hello, guido!``.
 
-Route parameters are passed as keyword-only arguments (after the ``*``).
+Route parameters are passed as *keyword-only* arguments (after the ``*``
+in the function signature). This is a Python feature that makes the
+interface explicit — you always know which arguments come from the URL.
 
 
 Type Convertors
 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 
-You can constrain route parameters to specific types. The parameter will be
-automatically converted before it reaches your view::
+By default, route parameters are strings. But often you want them as
+integers, UUIDs, or other types. Responder can convert them automatically
+using type annotations in the route pattern::
 
     @api.route("/add/{a:int}/{b:int}")
     async def add(req, resp, *, a, b):
         resp.text = f"{a} + {b} = {a + b}"
 
+Here, ``a`` and ``b`` will arrive as Python ``int`` objects, not strings.
+If someone requests ``/add/3/hello``, they'll get a 404 — the route won't
+match because ``hello`` isn't a valid integer.
+
 Supported types:
 
-- ``str`` — matches any string without slashes (default)
-- ``int`` — matches digits, converts to ``int``
-- ``float`` — matches decimal numbers, converts to ``float``
+- ``str`` — matches any string without slashes (this is the default)
+- ``int`` — matches digits and converts to ``int``
+- ``float`` — matches decimal numbers and converts to ``float``
 - ``uuid`` — matches UUID strings like ``550e8400-e29b-41d4-a716-446655440000``
 - ``path`` — matches any string *including* slashes, useful for file paths
+  like ``/files/{filepath:path}``
 
 
 Sending Responses
 -----------------
 
-Responder gives you several ways to send data back to the client. Just set
-the appropriate property on the response object.
+When an HTTP server receives a request, it must send back a response. Every
+HTTP response has three parts: a status code (like ``200 OK`` or ``404 Not
+Found``), headers (metadata like ``Content-Type``), and a body (the actual
+data).
 
-**Text and HTML**::
+Responder lets you set all three by mutating the response object.
+
+**Text and HTML** — the simplest response types. ``resp.text`` sets the
+``Content-Type`` to ``text/plain``, while ``resp.html`` sets it to
+``text/html``::
 
     resp.text = "plain text response"
     resp.html = "<h1>HTML response</h1>"
 
-**JSON** — the most common pattern for APIs. Set ``resp.media`` to any
-JSON-serializable Python object::
+**JSON** — the lingua franca of web APIs. Set ``resp.media`` to any
+JSON-serializable Python object — a dict, a list, whatever — and Responder
+will serialize it to JSON and set the right headers::
 
     @api.route("/hello/{who}/json")
     def hello_json(req, resp, *, who):
         resp.media = {"hello": who}
 
 If the client sends an ``Accept: application/x-yaml`` header, the same data
-will be returned as YAML instead. Content negotiation is automatic.
+will be returned as YAML instead. This is called *content negotiation* —
+the server and client agree on a format. It happens automatically.
 
-**Files** — serve a file from disk with automatic content-type detection::
+**Files** — serve a file from disk. Responder uses Python's ``mimetypes``
+module to figure out the ``Content-Type`` from the file extension::
 
     resp.file("reports/annual.pdf")
 
-**Raw bytes**::
+**Raw bytes** — for binary data like images or protocol buffers::
 
     resp.content = b"\x89PNG\r\n..."
 
-**Status codes and headers**::
+**Status codes** — HTTP status codes tell the client what happened. ``200``
+means success, ``201`` means something was created, ``404`` means not found,
+``500`` means the server broke. Set it directly::
 
     resp.status_code = 201
+
+**Headers** — HTTP headers carry metadata. Common ones include
+``Content-Type``, ``Cache-Control``, ``Authorization``, and custom
+application headers::
+
     resp.headers["X-Custom"] = "value"
 
-**Redirects**::
+**Redirects** — tell the client to go somewhere else::
 
     api.redirect(resp, location="/new-url")
 
+This sends a ``301 Moved Permanently`` response by default. The client's
+browser will automatically follow the redirect.
+
 
 Reading Requests
 ----------------
 
-The request object gives you access to everything the client sent.
+The other half of HTTP is the request — the data the client sends to your
+server. This includes the HTTP method (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE), the URL,
+headers, query parameters, cookies, and optionally a body.
 
-**Method and URL**::
+Responder wraps all of this in the ``req`` object.
+
+**Method and URL** — every HTTP request has a method (what the client wants
+to do) and a URL (what resource it's about)::
 
     req.method      # "get", "post", etc. (lowercase)
     req.full_url    # "http://example.com/path?q=1"
     req.url         # parsed URL object
 
-**Headers** — case-insensitive, just like you'd expect::
+**Headers** — HTTP headers carry metadata from the client, like what
+content types it accepts, authentication tokens, and more. Responder's
+headers dict is case-insensitive, because the HTTP spec says header names
+are case-insensitive::
 
     req.headers["Content-Type"]
     req.headers["content-type"]  # same thing
 
-**Query parameters**::
+**Query parameters** — the part of the URL after the ``?``. These are
+commonly used for search, filtering, and pagination::
 
     # GET /search?q=python&page=2
     req.params["q"]     # "python"
     req.params["page"]  # "2"
 
-**Path parameters** — also available on the request object::
+Note that query parameters are always strings. If you need an integer,
+you'll need to convert it yourself: ``int(req.params["page"])``.
+
+**Path parameters** — the dynamic parts of the URL that matched your route
+pattern. These are also available on the request object, which is useful
+in before-request hooks where they aren't passed as function arguments::
 
     req.path_params["user_id"]  # same as the keyword argument
 
-**Request body** — for POST/PUT/PATCH requests, you need to ``await`` the
-body content::
+**Request body** — for POST, PUT, and PATCH requests, the client sends
+data in the body. Since reading the body is an I/O operation, you need to
+``await`` it::
 
-    # JSON body
+    # JSON body (the most common format for APIs)
     data = await req.media()
 
-    # Form data
+    # Form data (from HTML forms)
     data = await req.media("form")
 
-    # File uploads
+    # File uploads (multipart)
     files = await req.media("files")
 
     # Raw bytes
@@ -170,41 +235,59 @@ body content::
 
 **Other useful properties**::
 
-    req.is_json     # True if content type is JSON
-    req.cookies     # dict of cookies
-    req.session     # session data (dict)
-    req.client      # (host, port) tuple
-    req.is_secure   # True if HTTPS
+    req.is_json     # True if the content type is JSON
+    req.cookies     # dict of cookies sent by the client
+    req.session     # session data (a signed, server-side dict)
+    req.client      # (host, port) tuple — the client's IP address
+    req.is_secure   # True if the request came over HTTPS
 
 
 Rendering Templates
 -------------------
 
-Responder includes built-in `Jinja2 <https://jinja.palletsprojects.com/>`_
-support. Templates are loaded from the ``templates/`` directory by default.
+While APIs typically return JSON, many web applications need to render
+HTML pages. Responder includes built-in support for
+`Jinja2 <https://jinja.palletsprojects.com/>`_, one of the most popular
+templating engines in the Python ecosystem.
 
-The simplest way is to use ``api.template()``::
+Templates let you write HTML with placeholders that get filled in with
+dynamic data. This keeps your presentation logic (HTML) separate from
+your application logic (Python) — a pattern called
+*separation of concerns*.
+
+The simplest way to render a template is ``api.template()``. Templates
+are loaded from the ``templates/`` directory by default::
 
     @api.route("/hello/{name}/html")
     def hello_html(req, resp, *, name):
         resp.html = api.template("hello.html", name=name)
 
-You can also use the ``Templates`` class directly for more control::
+The template file ``templates/hello.html`` might look like::
+
+    <h1>Hello, {{ name }}!</h1>
+
+The ``{{ name }}`` part is a Jinja2 expression — it gets replaced with
+the value you passed in.
+
+You can also use the ``Templates`` class directly for more control over
+the template directory and configuration::
 
     from responder.templates import Templates
 
-    templates = Templates(directory="templates")
+    templates = Templates(directory="my_templates")
 
     @api.route("/page")
     def page(req, resp):
         resp.html = templates.render("page.html", title="Hello")
 
-Async rendering is supported too::
+For applications that need non-blocking template rendering (rare, but
+useful under extreme load), async rendering is supported::
 
     templates = Templates(directory="templates", enable_async=True)
     resp.html = await templates.render_async("page.html", title="Hello")
 
-You can render template strings without a file::
+And for quick one-off templates, you can render a string directly without
+a file::
 
     resp.html = api.template_string("Hello, {{ name }}!", name="world")
 
@@ -213,7 +296,13 @@ Background Tasks
 ----------------
 
 Sometimes you want to accept a request, respond immediately, and do the
-actual processing later. Responder makes this easy with background tasks::
+actual processing later. This is a common pattern for operations that take
+a long time — sending emails, processing images, updating caches, or
+calling slow external APIs.
+
+Responder makes this easy with background tasks. Decorate any function
+with ``@api.background.task`` and it will run in a thread pool, separate
+from the request/response cycle::
 
     @api.route("/incoming")
     async def receive_incoming(req, resp):
@@ -227,8 +316,63 @@ actual processing later. Responder makes this easy with background tasks::
 
         process_data(data)
 
-        # Respond immediately — processing continues in the background
+        # This response is sent immediately, while process_data
+        # continues running in the background.
         resp.media = {"status": "accepted"}
 
-The ``@api.background.task`` decorator wraps any function to run in a thread
-pool. The client gets an immediate response while the work continues.
+The client gets an instant response — the heavy lifting happens after.
+This is the same pattern used by task queues like Celery, but much simpler
+for lightweight use cases where you don't need a full message broker.
+
+.. note::
+
+   Background tasks run in threads, not processes. They share memory with
+   your application, which makes them fast to start but means CPU-intensive
+   work will block the event loop. For heavy computation, consider a proper
+   task queue.
+
+
+Putting It All Together
+-----------------------
+
+Here's a complete, working Responder application that combines everything
+from this guide::
+
+    import responder
+
+    api = responder.API()
+
+    @api.route("/")
+    def index(req, resp):
+        resp.text = "Welcome to the API"
+
+    @api.route("/hello/{name}")
+    def greet(req, resp, *, name):
+        resp.media = {"message": f"hello, {name}!"}
+
+    @api.route("/add/{a:int}/{b:int}")
+    def add(req, resp, *, a, b):
+        resp.media = {"result": a + b}
+
+    @api.route("/echo", methods=["POST"])
+    async def echo(req, resp):
+        data = await req.media()
+        resp.media = {"received": data}
+
+    if __name__ == "__main__":
+        api.run()
+
+Save this as ``app.py``, run it with ``python app.py``, and try::
+
+    $ curl http://localhost:5042/
+    $ curl http://localhost:5042/hello/world
+    $ curl http://localhost:5042/add/3/4
+    $ curl -X POST http://localhost:5042/echo \
+        -H "Content-Type: application/json" -d '{"key": "value"}'
+
+From here, explore the :doc:`tour` for the full range of features, or
+jump into the tutorials:
+
+- :doc:`tutorial-rest` — build a full CRUD API with validation
+- :doc:`tutorial-sqlalchemy` — connect to a database
+- :doc:`tutorial-auth` — add authentication

docs/source/testing.rst

@@ -3,7 +3,9 @@ Testing
 
 Responder includes a built-in test client powered by Starlette's
 ``TestClient``. You don't need to start a server — tests run in-process,
-making them fast and reliable.
+making them fast and reliable. There's no separate test server to manage,
+no ports to allocate, and no race conditions to worry about. Just import
+your app and start making requests.
 
 
 Getting Started
@@ -22,7 +24,9 @@ Given a simple application in ``api.py``::
     if __name__ == "__main__":
         api.run()
 
-You can test it with pytest::
+You can test it with pytest. Every Responder ``API`` instance has a
+``requests`` property that gives you a test client — use it exactly like
+you'd use ``requests`` or ``httpx``::
 
     # test_api.py
     import api as service
@@ -35,12 +39,15 @@ Run your tests::
 
     $ pytest
 
+That's really all there is to it. No configuration, no test server setup.
+
 
 Using Fixtures
 --------------
 
-For larger test suites, use pytest fixtures to share the API instance
-across tests::
+For larger test suites, pytest fixtures keep things organized. Create a
+fixture that returns your API instance, and every test gets a fresh
+reference to it::
 
     import pytest
     import api as service
@@ -62,13 +69,16 @@ across tests::
         assert r.json() == {"key": "value"}
 
 The ``api.url_for()`` method generates a URL for a given route endpoint,
-so you don't have to hard-code paths in your tests.
+so you don't have to hard-code paths in your tests. If you rename a route
+later, your tests won't break.
 
 
 Testing JSON APIs
 -----------------
 
-Send JSON data and check the response::
+Most APIs send and receive JSON. The test client makes this natural — pass
+``json=`` to send a JSON body, and call ``.json()`` on the response to
+parse it::
 
     def test_create_item(api):
         @api.route("/items")
@@ -81,11 +91,45 @@ Send JSON data and check the response::
         assert r.status_code == 201
         assert r.json() == {"created": {"name": "widget"}}
 
+You can also test content negotiation by setting the ``Accept`` header::
+
+    r = api.requests.get("/data", headers={"Accept": "application/x-yaml"})
+    assert "key: value" in r.text
+
+
+Testing Request Validation
+--------------------------
+
+If you're using Pydantic models for request validation, you can test
+that invalid inputs are properly rejected::
+
+    from pydantic import BaseModel
+
+    class Item(BaseModel):
+        name: str
+        price: float
+
+    def test_validation(api):
+        @api.route("/items", methods=["POST"], request_model=Item)
+        async def create(req, resp):
+            data = await req.media()
+            resp.media = data
+
+        # Valid request
+        r = api.requests.post("/items", json={"name": "thing", "price": 9.99})
+        assert r.status_code == 200
+
+        # Missing required field
+        r = api.requests.post("/items", json={"name": "thing"})
+        assert r.status_code == 422
+        assert "errors" in r.json()
+
 
 Testing File Uploads
 --------------------
 
-Send files using the ``files`` parameter::
+File uploads use the ``files`` parameter, just like the ``requests``
+library. Each file is a tuple of ``(filename, content, content_type)``::
 
     def test_upload(api):
         @api.route("/upload")
@@ -98,10 +142,29 @@ Send files using the ``files`` parameter::
         assert r.json() == {"received": ["doc"]}
 
 
+Testing Headers and Cookies
+----------------------------
+
+Check response headers and cookies just like you would with any HTTP
+client::
+
+    def test_headers(api):
+        @api.route("/")
+        def view(req, resp):
+            resp.headers["X-Custom"] = "hello"
+            resp.cookies["session"] = "abc123"
+
+        r = api.requests.get("/")
+        assert r.headers["X-Custom"] == "hello"
+        assert "session" in r.cookies
+
+
 Testing WebSockets
 ------------------
 
-Use Starlette's ``TestClient`` directly for WebSocket connections::
+WebSocket tests use Starlette's ``TestClient`` directly, since WebSocket
+connections require a different protocol. The ``websocket_connect`` context
+manager gives you a connection you can send and receive on::
 
     from starlette.testclient import TestClient
 
@@ -109,19 +172,23 @@ Use Starlette's ``TestClient`` directly for WebSocket connections::
         @api.route("/ws", websocket=True)
         async def ws(ws):
             await ws.accept()
-            await ws.send_text("hello")
+            name = await ws.receive_text()
+            await ws.send_text(f"hello, {name}!")
             await ws.close()
 
         client = TestClient(api)
         with client.websocket_connect("/ws") as ws:
-            assert ws.receive_text() == "hello"
+            ws.send_text("world")
+            assert ws.receive_text() == "hello, world!"
 
 
 Testing Error Handling
 ----------------------
 
-To test error responses without pytest raising the exception, disable
-server exception propagation::
+By default, the test client raises exceptions from your route handlers,
+which is usually what you want — it makes bugs obvious. But when you're
+testing error handling specifically, you want to see the error response
+instead. Disable exception propagation with ``raise_server_exceptions``::
 
     from starlette.testclient import TestClient
 
@@ -134,12 +201,30 @@ server exception propagation::
         r = client.get(api.url_for(fail))
         assert r.status_code == 500
 
+If you've registered a custom exception handler, you can test that too::
+
+    def test_custom_error(api):
+        @api.exception_handler(ValueError)
+        async def handle(req, resp, exc):
+            resp.status_code = 400
+            resp.media = {"error": str(exc)}
+
+        @api.route("/fail")
+        def fail(req, resp):
+            raise ValueError("bad input")
+
+        client = TestClient(api, raise_server_exceptions=False)
+        r = client.get(api.url_for(fail))
+        assert r.status_code == 400
+        assert r.json() == {"error": "bad input"}
+
 
 Testing Lifespan Events
 -----------------------
 
-The test client supports lifespan events. Use ``with`` to ensure startup
-and shutdown hooks run::
+If your app uses startup and shutdown events (for database connections,
+caches, etc.), you need the test client to trigger them. Wrap the client
+in a ``with`` block — startup runs on enter, shutdown runs on exit::
 
     def test_with_lifespan(api):
         started = {"value": False}
@@ -155,3 +240,47 @@ and shutdown hooks run::
         with api.requests as session:
             r = session.get("http://;/")
             assert r.json() == {"started": True}
+
+Without the ``with`` block, lifespan events won't fire, which can lead to
+confusing test failures if your routes depend on startup initialization.
+
+
+Testing Before and After Hooks
+------------------------------
+
+Before-request and after-request hooks run automatically during tests,
+just like in production. You can verify their effects on the response::
+
+    def test_hooks(api):
+        @api.route(before_request=True)
+        def add_version(req, resp):
+            resp.headers["X-Version"] = "3.2"
+
+        @api.after_request()
+        def add_timing(req, resp):
+            resp.headers["X-Served-By"] = "responder"
+
+        @api.route("/")
+        def view(req, resp):
+            resp.text = "ok"
+
+        r = api.requests.get("/")
+        assert r.headers["X-Version"] == "3.2"
+        assert r.headers["X-Served-By"] == "responder"
+
+
+Tips
+----
+
+- **Keep tests fast.** The in-process test client is already fast — no
+  network overhead. Avoid ``time.sleep()`` in tests.
+
+- **One API per test** when testing configuration. If you need a specific
+  ``API()`` configuration (like ``cors=True``), create a new instance
+  in the test rather than sharing the fixture.
+
+- Use ``api.url_for()`` instead of hard-coded paths. It's a small
+  thing, but it makes refactoring painless.
+
+- **Test the contract, not the implementation.** Assert on status codes,
+  response bodies, and headers — not on internal state.

docs/source/tour.rst

@@ -1,15 +1,27 @@
 Feature Tour
 ============
 
-This section walks through Responder's features in detail. Each section
-includes working code examples you can copy into your application.
+This section walks through Responder's features in depth. Each section
+explains the concept, shows working code, and explains the design choices
+behind it. If you're new to web development, this is a good place to learn
+how modern web frameworks work under the hood.
 
 
 Method Filtering
 ----------------
 
-By default, a route matches all HTTP methods. If you want to restrict a
-route to specific methods, pass the ``methods`` parameter::
+HTTP defines several *methods* (also called verbs) that describe what a
+client wants to do with a resource. The most common are:
+
+- ``GET`` — retrieve data
+- ``POST`` — create something new
+- ``PUT`` — replace something entirely
+- ``PATCH`` — update part of something
+- ``DELETE`` — remove something
+
+By default, a Responder route matches all methods. This is fine for simple
+endpoints, but REST APIs typically map different methods to different
+operations. Use the ``methods`` parameter to restrict a route::
 
     @api.route("/items", methods=["GET"])
     def list_items(req, resp):
@@ -20,15 +32,22 @@ route to specific methods, pass the ``methods`` parameter::
         data = await req.media()
         resp.media = {"created": data}
 
-Note the ``check_existing=False`` — this allows you to register multiple
-handlers for the same path with different methods.
+Note the ``check_existing=False`` — Responder normally prevents you from
+registering two routes with the same path (to catch typos). When you
+intentionally want multiple handlers for the same path with different
+methods, you need to opt in.
 
 
 Class-Based Views
 -----------------
 
-For more complex resources, you can use class-based views. Responder will
-dispatch to the appropriate method handler based on the HTTP method::
+Function-based views are great for simple endpoints, but sometimes you want
+to group related HTTP methods together into a single resource. This is
+where class-based views come in — a pattern popularized by
+`Falcon <https://falconframework.org/>`_.
+
+Responder dispatches to the appropriate method handler based on the HTTP
+method::
 
     @api.route("/{greeting}")
     class GreetingResource:
@@ -47,14 +66,19 @@ middleware scoped to a single route. Method-specific handlers (``on_get``,
 ``on_post``, ``on_put``, ``on_delete``, etc.) are called after.
 
 No inheritance required — just define a class with the right method names.
+This is simpler than Django's ``View`` classes and more Pythonic than
+framework-specific base classes.
 
 
 Lifespan Events
 ---------------
 
-Modern applications often need to set up resources on startup (database
-connections, caches, ML models) and tear them down on shutdown. Responder
-supports the lifespan context manager pattern::
+Real applications need to set up resources when they start (database
+connection pools, ML models, caches) and tear them down when they stop.
+This is called the application *lifespan*.
+
+The modern approach is the *context manager* pattern, where startup and
+shutdown are two halves of the same block::
 
     from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
 
@@ -68,7 +92,11 @@ supports the lifespan context manager pattern::
 
     api = responder.API(lifespan=lifespan)
 
-You can also use the traditional event decorator style::
+Everything before ``yield`` runs at startup. Everything after runs at
+shutdown. If startup fails, the server won't start. If shutdown raises,
+it's logged but the server still exits.
+
+The traditional event decorator style also works::
 
     @api.on_event("startup")
     async def startup():
@@ -78,57 +106,71 @@ You can also use the traditional event decorator style::
     async def shutdown():
         print("shutting down")
 
-The context manager approach is preferred for new code — it makes the
-startup/shutdown relationship explicit and keeps related code together.
+The context manager is preferred for new code — it keeps related startup
+and shutdown logic together and makes resource cleanup more explicit.
 
 
 Serving Files
 -------------
 
-Serve files from disk with automatic content-type detection. Responder
-uses Python's ``mimetypes`` module to figure out the right ``Content-Type``
-header for you::
+Web applications often need to serve files — downloads, reports, images.
+Responder makes this simple with ``resp.file()``, which reads a file from
+disk and sets the ``Content-Type`` header automatically using Python's
+``mimetypes`` module::
 
     @api.route("/download")
     def download(req, resp):
         resp.file("reports/annual.pdf")
 
-You can override the content type if needed::
+You can override the content type if the automatic detection isn't right::
 
     @api.route("/image")
     def image(req, resp):
         resp.file("photos/cat.jpg", content_type="image/jpeg")
 
+For large files, use ``resp.stream_file()`` to avoid loading the entire
+file into memory. This streams the file in chunks::
+
+    @api.route("/export")
+    def export(req, resp):
+        resp.stream_file("data/export.csv")
+
 
 Custom Error Handling
 ---------------------
 
-By default, unhandled exceptions result in a 500 Internal Server Error.
-You can register custom handlers for specific exception types to return
-structured error responses::
+In production, you don't want your users to see raw Python tracebacks.
+Responder lets you register custom handlers for specific exception types,
+so you can return clean, structured error responses::
 
     @api.exception_handler(ValueError)
     async def handle_value_error(req, resp, exc):
         resp.status_code = 400
         resp.media = {"error": str(exc)}
 
-Now, any route that raises a ``ValueError`` will return a clean 400 response
-with a JSON error message instead of a generic 500 page.
+Now, any route that raises a ``ValueError`` will return a clean JSON
+response with a 400 status code instead of a generic 500 error page.
+
+This is a common pattern in API development — you define your own exception
+classes for different error conditions, register handlers for each, and
+your API always returns consistent, machine-readable error responses.
 
 
 Before-Request Hooks
 --------------------
 
-Run code before every request. This is useful for logging, adding common
-headers, or setting up per-request state::
+Sometimes you need to run the same code before every request —
+authentication checks, request logging, adding common headers, or setting
+up per-request state. Before-request hooks let you do this without
+duplicating code in every route::
 
     @api.route(before_request=True)
     def add_headers(req, resp):
-        resp.headers["X-API-Version"] = "3.1"
+        resp.headers["X-API-Version"] = "3.2"
 
-**Short-circuiting:** If your hook sets ``resp.status_code``, the route
-handler will be skipped entirely and the response will be sent immediately.
-This is the pattern for authentication guards::
+**Short-circuiting** is the really powerful part. If your hook sets
+``resp.status_code``, the route handler is skipped entirely and the
+response is sent immediately. This is the pattern for authentication::
 
     @api.route(before_request=True)
     def auth_check(req, resp):
@@ -137,19 +179,36 @@ This is the pattern for authentication guards::
             resp.media = {"error": "unauthorized"}
 
 If the ``Authorization`` header is missing, the client gets a 401 response
-and the actual route handler never runs.
+and the actual route handler never runs. This is cleaner than adding
+auth checks to every individual route.
 
-WebSocket hooks work the same way::
 
-    @api.before_request(websocket=True)
-    async def ws_auth(ws):
-        await ws.accept()
+After-Request Hooks
+-------------------
+
+The complement to before-request hooks. After-request hooks run after the
+route handler completes but before the response is sent. They're useful
+for logging, adding response headers, or any post-processing::
+
+    @api.after_request()
+    def log_response(req, resp):
+        print(f"{req.method} {req.full_url} -> {resp.status_code}")
+
+    @api.after_request()
+    async def add_timing(req, resp):
+        resp.headers["X-Served-By"] = "responder"
 
 
 WebSocket Support
 -----------------
 
-Responder supports WebSockets for real-time, bidirectional communication::
+HTTP is a request-response protocol — the client asks, the server answers.
+But some applications need real-time, bidirectional communication: chat
+apps, live dashboards, multiplayer games, collaborative editors.
+
+`WebSockets <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebSocket>`_ solve this by
+upgrading an HTTP connection into a persistent, full-duplex channel where
+both sides can send messages at any time::
 
     @api.route("/ws", websocket=True)
     async def websocket(ws):
@@ -161,14 +220,54 @@ Responder supports WebSockets for real-time, bidirectional communication::
 
 You can send and receive in multiple formats:
 
-- ``send_text`` / ``receive_text`` — plain text
-- ``send_json`` / ``receive_json`` — JSON objects
+- ``send_text`` / ``receive_text`` — plain text strings
+- ``send_json`` / ``receive_json`` — JSON objects (auto-serialized)
 - ``send_bytes`` / ``receive_bytes`` — raw binary data
 
+WebSocket routes are marked with ``websocket=True`` in the route decorator.
+They receive a ``ws`` object instead of ``req`` and ``resp``.
+
+
+Server-Sent Events (SSE)
+-------------------------
+
+SSE is a simpler alternative to WebSockets for *one-way* real-time
+communication — the server pushes events to the client, but the client
+can't send messages back. This is perfect for live feeds, progress bars,
+notification streams, and AI response streaming.
+
+Unlike WebSockets, SSE works over plain HTTP, is automatically reconnected
+by the browser, and doesn't require any special client-side libraries::
+
+    @api.route("/events")
+    async def events(req, resp):
+        @resp.sse
+        async def stream():
+            for i in range(10):
+                yield {"data": f"message {i}"}
+
+On the client side, you consume SSE events with JavaScript's built-in
+``EventSource`` API::
+
+    const source = new EventSource("/events");
+    source.onmessage = (event) => {
+        console.log(event.data);
+    };
+
+Each yielded value can be a string (treated as data) or a dict with the
+standard SSE fields::
+
+    yield {"event": "update", "data": "hello", "id": "1", "retry": "5000"}
+    yield "simple string message"
+
 
 GraphQL
 -------
 
+`GraphQL <https://graphql.org/>`_ is a query language for APIs that lets
+clients request exactly the data they need — no more, no less. Instead of
+multiple REST endpoints, you define a schema and let clients query it.
+
 Responder includes built-in GraphQL support via
 `Graphene <https://graphene-python.org/>`_. Set up a full GraphQL endpoint
 with a single method call::
@@ -183,9 +282,10 @@ with a single method call::
 
     api.graphql("/graphql", schema=graphene.Schema(query=Query))
 
-Visiting ``/graphql`` in a browser renders the GraphiQL interactive IDE,
-where you can explore your schema and test queries. Programmatic clients
-can POST JSON queries to the same endpoint.
+Visiting ``/graphql`` in a browser renders the
+`GraphiQL <https://github.com/graphql/graphiql>`_ interactive IDE, where
+you can explore your schema, write queries, and see results in real-time.
+Programmatic clients can POST JSON queries to the same endpoint.
 
 You can access the Responder request and response objects in your resolvers
 through ``info.context["request"]`` and ``info.context["response"]``.
@@ -194,8 +294,12 @@ through ``info.context["request"]`` and ``info.context["response"]``.
 OpenAPI Documentation
 ---------------------
 
-Responder can generate an OpenAPI schema and serve interactive API
-documentation automatically::
+`OpenAPI <https://www.openapis.org/>`_ (formerly Swagger) is the industry
+standard for describing REST APIs. An OpenAPI specification lets you
+auto-generate interactive documentation, client libraries, and validation
+logic.
+
+Responder generates OpenAPI specs from your code::
 
     api = responder.API(
         title="Pet Store",
@@ -211,9 +315,11 @@ This gives you:
 
 There are three ways to document your endpoints.
 
-**Pydantic models** — the recommended approach for new APIs. Use
-``request_model`` and ``response_model`` to annotate your routes, and
-Responder will generate the schema automatically::
+**Pydantic models** — the recommended approach. Use ``request_model`` and
+``response_model`` to annotate your routes, and Responder generates the
+schema automatically. When ``request_model`` is set, request bodies are
+also validated automatically — invalid inputs get a ``422`` response with
+detailed error messages::
 
     from pydantic import BaseModel
 
@@ -232,19 +338,11 @@ Responder will generate the schema automatically::
         data = await req.media()
         resp.media = {"id": 1, **data}
 
-This generates a full OpenAPI path with ``requestBody`` and ``responses``
-schemas, all linked by ``$ref`` to your Pydantic models in
-``components/schemas``.
+When ``response_model`` is set, the response is serialized through the
+model — extra fields are stripped and types are enforced.
 
-You can also register standalone schemas with the ``@api.schema`` decorator::
-
-    @api.schema("Pet")
-    class Pet(BaseModel):
-        name: str
-        age: int = 0
-
-**YAML docstrings** — inline your OpenAPI spec directly in the docstring.
-This gives you full control over every detail::
+**YAML docstrings** — for full control, embed OpenAPI YAML in the
+docstring::
 
     @api.route("/pets")
     def list_pets(req, resp):
@@ -258,8 +356,7 @@ This gives you full control over every detail::
         """
         resp.media = [{"name": "Fido"}]
 
-**Marshmallow schemas** — if you're already using marshmallow for
-validation, Responder integrates with it via the apispec plugin::
+**Marshmallow schemas** — if you're already using marshmallow::
 
     from marshmallow import Schema, fields
 
@@ -267,19 +364,43 @@ validation, Responder integrates with it via the apispec plugin::
     class PetSchema(Schema):
         name = fields.Str()
 
-All three approaches can be mixed in the same API. Pydantic models,
-marshmallow schemas, and YAML docstrings all contribute to the same
-generated OpenAPI specification.
+All three approaches can be mixed in the same API. You can choose from
+multiple documentation themes: ``swagger_ui`` (default), ``redoc``,
+``rapidoc``, or ``elements``.
 
-You can choose from multiple documentation themes:
-``swagger_ui`` (default), ``redoc``, ``rapidoc``, or ``elements``.
+
+Route Groups
+------------
+
+As your application grows, you'll want to organize routes logically.
+Route groups let you share a URL prefix across related endpoints — a
+common pattern for API versioning::
+
+    v1 = api.group("/v1")
+
+    @v1.route("/users")
+    def list_users(req, resp):
+        resp.media = []
+
+    @v1.route("/users/{user_id:int}")
+    def get_user(req, resp, *, user_id):
+        resp.media = {"id": user_id}
+
+    v2 = api.group("/v2")
+
+    @v2.route("/users")
+    def list_users_v2(req, resp):
+        resp.media = {"users": [], "total": 0}
+
+This keeps your code organized without affecting the routing logic.
 
 
 Mounting Other Apps
 -------------------
 
-Responder can mount any WSGI or ASGI application at a subroute. This means
-you can gradually migrate from Flask, or run multiple frameworks side by side::
+Responder can mount any WSGI or ASGI application at a subroute. This is
+incredibly useful for gradual migrations — you can run Flask and Responder
+side by side, moving routes over one at a time::
 
     from flask import Flask
 
@@ -293,12 +414,17 @@ you can gradually migrate from Flask, or run multiple frameworks side by side::
 
 Requests to ``/flask/`` will be handled by Flask. Everything else goes
 through Responder. Both WSGI and ASGI apps are supported — Responder
-wraps WSGI apps automatically.
+wraps WSGI apps in an ASGI adapter automatically.
 
 
 Cookies
 -------
 
+`Cookies <https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Cookies>`_ are
+small pieces of data that the server asks the browser to store and send
+back with every subsequent request. They're the foundation of sessions,
+authentication tokens, and user preferences on the web.
+
 Reading and writing cookies is straightforward::
 
     # Read cookies from the request
@@ -307,26 +433,28 @@ Reading and writing cookies is straightforward::
     # Set a cookie on the response
     resp.cookies["hello"] = "world"
 
-For more control over cookie directives, use ``set_cookie``::
+For production use, you'll want to set security directives. The
+``httponly`` flag prevents JavaScript from reading the cookie (defending
+against XSS attacks), and ``secure`` ensures it's only sent over HTTPS::
 
     resp.set_cookie(
         "token",
         value="abc123",
-        max_age=3600,
-        secure=True,
-        httponly=True,
+        max_age=3600,        # expires in 1 hour
+        secure=True,         # HTTPS only
+        httponly=True,        # no JavaScript access
         path="/",
     )
 
-Supported directives: ``key``, ``value``, ``expires``, ``max_age``,
-``domain``, ``path``, ``secure``, ``httponly``.
-
 
 Cookie-Based Sessions
 ---------------------
 
-Responder has built-in support for signed, cookie-based sessions. Just
-read from and write to the ``session`` dictionary::
+Sessions let you store per-user data across multiple requests. Responder's
+built-in sessions are cookie-based — the session data is serialized, signed
+with your secret key, and stored in a cookie. The signature prevents
+tampering: if someone modifies the cookie, the signature won't match and
+the data will be rejected::
 
     @api.route("/login")
     def login(req, resp):
@@ -336,13 +464,9 @@ read from and write to the ``session`` dictionary::
     def profile(req, resp):
         resp.media = {"user": req.session.get("username")}
 
-The session data is stored in a cookie called ``Responder-Session``. It's
-signed for tamper protection, so you can trust that the data originated
-from your server.
-
 .. warning::
 
-   For production use, always set a secret key::
+   Always set a secret key in production. The default key is not secret::
 
        api = responder.API(secret_key="your-secret-key-here")
 
@@ -350,141 +474,98 @@ from your server.
 Static Files
 ------------
 
-Static files are served from the ``static/`` directory by default::
+Most web applications serve static assets — CSS stylesheets, JavaScript
+files, images, fonts. Responder serves these from the ``static/`` directory
+by default::
 
     api = responder.API(static_dir="static", static_route="/static")
 
-Place your CSS, JavaScript, images, and other assets in the ``static/``
-directory and they'll be served automatically.
+Place your assets in the ``static/`` directory and they'll be served
+automatically at ``/static/style.css``, ``/static/app.js``, etc.
 
-For single-page applications, you can serve ``index.html`` as the default
-response for all unmatched routes::
+For single-page applications (React, Vue, Angular), you can serve
+``index.html`` as the default response for all unmatched routes::
 
     api.add_route("/", static=True)
 
-You can add additional static directories at runtime::
-
-    api.static_app.add_directory("extra_assets")
-
 
 CORS
 ----
 
-Enable Cross-Origin Resource Sharing for your API::
+`CORS <https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/CORS>`_ (Cross-
+Origin Resource Sharing) is a security mechanism that controls which
+websites can make requests to your API. Browsers enforce this — if your
+API is at ``api.example.com`` and your frontend is at ``app.example.com``,
+the browser will block requests unless your API explicitly allows it.
+
+Enable CORS and configure which origins are allowed::
 
     api = responder.API(cors=True, cors_params={
-        "allow_origins": ["https://example.com"],
+        "allow_origins": ["https://app.example.com"],
         "allow_methods": ["GET", "POST"],
         "allow_headers": ["*"],
         "allow_credentials": True,
         "max_age": 600,
     })
 
-The default CORS policy is restrictive — you must explicitly enable the
-origins, methods, and headers your frontend needs.
+The default policy is restrictive — you must explicitly allow each origin.
+Using ``["*"]`` for allow_origins permits any website to call your API,
+which is fine for public APIs but not for private ones.
 
 
 HSTS
 ----
 
-Force all traffic to HTTPS with a single flag::
+`HSTS <https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/Headers/Strict-Transport-Security>`_
+(HTTP Strict Transport Security) tells browsers to always use HTTPS when
+communicating with your server. Once a browser sees the HSTS header, it
+will refuse to connect over plain HTTP, even if the user types ``http://``
+in the address bar::
 
     api = responder.API(enable_hsts=True)
 
-This adds the ``Strict-Transport-Security`` header and redirects HTTP
-requests to HTTPS.
-
 
 Trusted Hosts
 -------------
 
-Protect against HTTP Host header attacks by restricting which hostnames
-your application will respond to::
+The ``Host`` header in an HTTP request tells the server which domain name
+the client used. Attackers can forge this header to trick your application
+into generating URLs to malicious domains (a class of attack called *Host
+header injection*).
+
+Restrict which hostnames your application accepts::
 
     api = responder.API(allowed_hosts=["example.com", "*.example.com"])
 
-Requests with a ``Host`` header that doesn't match any of the patterns
-will receive a 400 Bad Request response. Wildcard domains are supported.
-
-By default, all hostnames are allowed.
-
-
-Server-Sent Events (SSE)
-------------------------
-
-Stream real-time updates to the client using Server-Sent Events. This is
-great for live feeds, progress updates, and AI streaming responses::
-
-    @api.route("/events")
-    async def events(req, resp):
-        @resp.sse
-        async def stream():
-            for i in range(10):
-                yield {"data": f"message {i}"}
-
-Each yielded value can be a string (treated as data) or a dict with
-``data``, ``event``, ``id``, and ``retry`` fields::
-
-    yield {"event": "update", "data": "hello", "id": "1"}
-    yield "simple string message"
-
-
-Streaming Files
----------------
-
-For large files, use ``resp.stream_file()`` to stream the content without
-loading the entire file into memory::
-
-    @api.route("/download")
-    def download(req, resp):
-        resp.stream_file("large-dataset.csv")
-
-For small files where memory isn't a concern, ``resp.file()`` loads the
-entire file at once — simpler but less efficient for large files.
-
-
-After-Request Hooks
--------------------
-
-Run code after every request, useful for logging, adding headers, or
-cleanup::
-
-    @api.after_request()
-    def log_response(req, resp):
-        print(f"{req.method} {req.full_url} -> {resp.status_code}")
-
-
-Route Groups
-------------
-
-Organize related routes with a shared URL prefix. Useful for API versioning
-and logical grouping::
-
-    v1 = api.group("/v1")
-
-    @v1.route("/users")
-    def list_users(req, resp):
-        resp.media = []
-
-    @v1.route("/users/{user_id:int}")
-    def get_user(req, resp, *, user_id):
-        resp.media = {"id": user_id}
+Requests with unrecognized hosts get a ``400 Bad Request``. Wildcard
+patterns are supported. By default, all hostnames are allowed.
 
 
 Request ID
 ----------
 
-Auto-generate unique request IDs for tracing and debugging. If the client
-sends an ``X-Request-ID`` header, it's forwarded; otherwise a new UUID is
-generated::
+In distributed systems, tracing a single request across multiple services
+is essential for debugging. Request IDs are unique identifiers attached to
+each request — if something goes wrong, you can search your logs for that
+ID and find every related event.
+
+Responder can auto-generate request IDs. If the client sends an
+``X-Request-ID`` header (common in microservice architectures), it's
+forwarded. Otherwise, a new UUID is generated::
 
     api = responder.API(request_id=True)
 
+The ID appears in the ``X-Request-ID`` response header.
+
 
 Rate Limiting
 -------------
 
-Built-in token bucket rate limiter::
+Rate limiting prevents individual clients from overwhelming your API with
+too many requests. It's essential for public APIs, and good practice even
+for internal ones.
+
+Responder includes a built-in token bucket rate limiter::
 
     from responder.ext.ratelimit import RateLimiter
 
@@ -492,17 +573,25 @@ Built-in token bucket rate limiter::
     limiter.install(api)
 
 When the limit is exceeded, clients receive a ``429 Too Many Requests``
-response with ``Retry-After`` and ``X-RateLimit-Remaining`` headers.
+response with a ``Retry-After`` header. Every response includes
+``X-RateLimit-Limit`` and ``X-RateLimit-Remaining`` headers so clients
+can pace themselves.
+
+The rate limiter is per-client, keyed by IP address.
 
 
 MessagePack
 -----------
 
-In addition to JSON and YAML, Responder supports MessagePack for efficient
-binary serialization::
+`MessagePack <https://msgpack.org/>`_ is a binary serialization format
+that's more compact and faster to parse than JSON. It's useful for
+high-throughput APIs, IoT devices, and anywhere bandwidth matters.
 
-    # Decode MessagePack request body
+Responder supports MessagePack alongside JSON and YAML::
+
+    # Decode a MessagePack request body
     data = await req.media("msgpack")
 
-    # Content negotiation also works — clients can send
-    # Accept: application/x-msgpack to receive MessagePack responses.
+Content negotiation works too — clients can send
+``Accept: application/x-msgpack`` to receive MessagePack responses
+instead of JSON.

docs/source/tutorial-auth.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,191 @@
+Authentication
+==============
+
+Every API that handles user data needs authentication — a way to verify
+who is making a request. This guide covers the most common patterns:
+API keys, JWT tokens, and how to build reusable auth guards with
+Responder's before-request hooks.
+
+
+API Key Authentication
+----------------------
+
+The simplest approach. The client sends a secret key in a header, and
+your server checks it against a known value. This is common for
+server-to-server communication and simple APIs::
+
+    API_KEYS = {"sk-abc123", "sk-def456"}
+
+    @api.route(before_request=True)
+    def check_api_key(req, resp):
+        key = req.headers.get("X-API-Key")
+        if key not in API_KEYS:
+            resp.status_code = 401
+            resp.media = {"error": "Invalid or missing API key"}
+
+Because the before-request hook sets ``resp.status_code``, the route
+handler is skipped entirely for unauthorized requests. The client never
+reaches your endpoint — the guard catches them first.
+
+The client sends the key like this::
+
+    $ curl -H "X-API-Key: sk-abc123" http://localhost:5042/protected
+
+
+Bearer Token Authentication
+----------------------------
+
+Bearer tokens are the standard for modern APIs. The client sends a token
+in the ``Authorization`` header, and the server validates it. The most
+common format is `JWT <https://jwt.io/>`_ (JSON Web Tokens).
+
+Install PyJWT::
+
+    $ uv pip install pyjwt
+
+Create a helper to encode and decode tokens::
+
+    import jwt
+    from datetime import datetime, timedelta
+
+    SECRET = "your-secret-key"
+
+    def create_token(user_id: int) -> str:
+        payload = {
+            "sub": user_id,
+            "exp": datetime.utcnow() + timedelta(hours=24),
+        }
+        return jwt.encode(payload, SECRET, algorithm="HS256")
+
+    def verify_token(token: str) -> dict | None:
+        try:
+            return jwt.decode(token, SECRET, algorithms=["HS256"])
+        except jwt.InvalidTokenError:
+            return None
+
+Add a login endpoint that issues tokens, and a before-request hook that
+verifies them::
+
+    @api.route("/login", methods=["POST"])
+    async def login(req, resp):
+        data = await req.media()
+        # In a real app, check credentials against a database
+        if data.get("username") == "admin" and data.get("password") == "secret":
+            token = create_token(user_id=1)
+            resp.media = {"token": token}
+        else:
+            resp.status_code = 401
+            resp.media = {"error": "Invalid credentials"}
+
+    @api.route(before_request=True)
+    def auth_guard(req, resp):
+        # Skip auth for the login endpoint itself
+        if req.url.path == "/login":
+            return
+
+        auth = req.headers.get("Authorization", "")
+        if not auth.startswith("Bearer "):
+            resp.status_code = 401
+            resp.media = {"error": "Missing bearer token"}
+            return
+
+        token = auth[7:]  # Strip "Bearer "
+        payload = verify_token(token)
+        if payload is None:
+            resp.status_code = 401
+            resp.media = {"error": "Invalid or expired token"}
+            return
+
+        # Store the authenticated user on the request state
+        req.state.user_id = payload["sub"]
+
+Now any route can access the authenticated user::
+
+    @api.route("/me")
+    def get_me(req, resp):
+        resp.media = {"user_id": req.state.user_id}
+
+The client flow:
+
+1. ``POST /login`` with credentials → receive a token
+2. Include ``Authorization: Bearer <token>`` on every subsequent request
+3. The token expires after 24 hours — the client must log in again
+
+
+Skipping Auth for Public Routes
+--------------------------------
+
+The example above skips auth for ``/login`` by checking the path. For
+more control, you can use a set of public paths::
+
+    PUBLIC_PATHS = {"/login", "/signup", "/health", "/docs", "/schema.yml"}
+
+    @api.route(before_request=True)
+    def auth_guard(req, resp):
+        if req.url.path in PUBLIC_PATHS:
+            return
+        # ... check token
+
+
+Custom Exception for Auth Errors
+---------------------------------
+
+For cleaner code, define a custom exception and register a handler::
+
+    class AuthError(Exception):
+        def __init__(self, message="Unauthorized", status_code=401):
+            self.message = message
+            self.status_code = status_code
+
+    @api.exception_handler(AuthError)
+    async def handle_auth_error(req, resp, exc):
+        resp.status_code = exc.status_code
+        resp.media = {"error": exc.message}
+
+Now your auth guard can simply raise::
+
+    @api.route(before_request=True)
+    def auth_guard(req, resp):
+        if req.url.path in PUBLIC_PATHS:
+            return
+        if "Authorization" not in req.headers:
+            raise AuthError("Missing authorization header")
+
+
+Using Sessions for Web Apps
+----------------------------
+
+For traditional web applications (with HTML pages and forms), cookie-based
+sessions are simpler than tokens. The browser handles cookies automatically
+— no client-side token management needed::
+
+    @api.route("/login", methods=["POST"])
+    async def login(req, resp):
+        data = await req.media("form")
+        if data["username"] == "admin" and data["password"] == "secret":
+            resp.session["user"] = data["username"]
+            api.redirect(resp, location="/dashboard")
+        else:
+            resp.status_code = 401
+            resp.html = "<p>Invalid credentials</p>"
+
+    @api.route("/dashboard")
+    def dashboard(req, resp):
+        user = req.session.get("user")
+        if not user:
+            api.redirect(resp, location="/login")
+            return
+        resp.html = f"<h1>Welcome, {user}!</h1>"
+
+    @api.route("/logout")
+    def logout(req, resp):
+        resp.session.clear()
+        api.redirect(resp, location="/login")
+
+Remember to set a proper secret key::
+
+    api = responder.API(secret_key="your-production-secret-key")
+
+The session data is signed (not encrypted) — users can read it but
+can't tamper with it. Don't store sensitive data like passwords in
+sessions.

docs/source/tutorial-flask.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,192 @@
+Migrating from Flask
+====================
+
+If you're coming from Flask, you'll find Responder familiar but different
+in a few key ways. This guide maps Flask concepts to their Responder
+equivalents and shows you how to translate common patterns.
+
+
+The Big Differences
+-------------------
+
+**No return values.** In Flask, you return a response. In Responder, you
+mutate it. This is the single biggest difference:
+
+Flask::
+
+    @app.route("/")
+    def hello():
+        return "hello, world!"
+
+Responder::
+
+    @api.route("/")
+    def hello(req, resp):
+        resp.text = "hello, world!"
+
+**Explicit request and response.** Flask uses a global ``request`` object
+(via thread-local magic). Responder passes ``req`` and ``resp`` explicitly.
+No magic, no import needed — they're right there in the function signature.
+
+**ASGI, not WSGI.** Flask runs on WSGI, which is synchronous. Responder
+runs on ASGI, which supports async natively. You can still write sync
+views — Responder runs them in a thread pool automatically.
+
+
+Quick Reference
+---------------
+
+.. list-table::
+   :header-rows: 1
+   :widths: 40 60
+
+   * - Flask
+     - Responder
+   * - ``Flask(__name__)``
+     - ``responder.API()``
+   * - ``return "text"``
+     - ``resp.text = "text"``
+   * - ``return jsonify(data)``
+     - ``resp.media = data``
+   * - ``return render_template("t.html", x=1)``
+     - ``resp.html = api.template("t.html", x=1)``
+   * - ``request.args["q"]``
+     - ``req.params["q"]``
+   * - ``request.json``
+     - ``await req.media()``
+   * - ``request.form``
+     - ``await req.media("form")``
+   * - ``request.headers["X"]``
+     - ``req.headers["X"]``
+   * - ``request.method``
+     - ``req.method``
+   * - ``request.cookies["x"]``
+     - ``req.cookies["x"]``
+   * - ``session["x"] = 1``
+     - ``resp.session["x"] = 1``
+   * - ``abort(404)``
+     - ``resp.status_code = 404``
+   * - ``redirect("/new")``
+     - ``api.redirect(resp, location="/new")``
+   * - ``@app.before_request``
+     - ``@api.route(before_request=True)``
+   * - ``@app.errorhandler(404)``
+     - ``@api.exception_handler(ValueError)``
+   * - ``app.run(debug=True)``
+     - ``api.run(debug=True)``
+
+
+Route Parameters
+----------------
+
+Flask uses ``<angle_brackets>``. Responder uses ``{curly_braces}``
+with the same type convertor idea:
+
+Flask::
+
+    @app.route("/users/<int:user_id>")
+    def get_user(user_id):
+        return jsonify({"id": user_id})
+
+Responder::
+
+    @api.route("/users/{user_id:int}")
+    def get_user(req, resp, *, user_id):
+        resp.media = {"id": user_id}
+
+Note the ``*`` — route parameters are keyword-only arguments in
+Responder. This makes the interface explicit about which arguments
+come from the URL.
+
+
+JSON APIs
+---------
+
+Flask::
+
+    @app.route("/api/items", methods=["POST"])
+    def create_item():
+        data = request.json
+        # ... create item
+        return jsonify(item), 201
+
+Responder::
+
+    @api.route("/api/items", methods=["POST"])
+    async def create_item(req, resp):
+        data = await req.media()
+        # ... create item
+        resp.media = item
+        resp.status_code = 201
+
+The ``await`` is needed because reading the request body is an async
+I/O operation. This is more explicit than Flask's approach, and it
+means the event loop isn't blocked while waiting for the body to arrive.
+
+
+Templates
+---------
+
+Both use Jinja2. The syntax is nearly identical:
+
+Flask::
+
+    @app.route("/hello/<name>")
+    def hello(name):
+        return render_template("hello.html", name=name)
+
+Responder::
+
+    @api.route("/hello/{name}")
+    def hello(req, resp, *, name):
+        resp.html = api.template("hello.html", name=name)
+
+
+Blueprints → Route Groups
+--------------------------
+
+Flask uses Blueprints to organize routes. Responder has route groups:
+
+Flask::
+
+    bp = Blueprint("api", __name__, url_prefix="/api")
+
+    @bp.route("/users")
+    def list_users():
+        return jsonify([])
+
+    app.register_blueprint(bp)
+
+Responder::
+
+    api_v1 = api.group("/api")
+
+    @api_v1.route("/users")
+    def list_users(req, resp):
+        resp.media = []
+
+
+Gradual Migration
+-----------------
+
+You don't have to migrate all at once. Responder can mount your existing
+Flask app at a subroute, so you can move endpoints over one at a time::
+
+    from flask import Flask
+
+    flask_app = Flask(__name__)
+
+    # Your existing Flask routes stay here
+    @flask_app.route("/legacy")
+    def legacy():
+        return "old endpoint"
+
+    # Mount Flask under /old, new routes go on Responder
+    api.mount("/old", flask_app)
+
+    @api.route("/new")
+    def new_endpoint(req, resp):
+        resp.media = {"modern": True}
+
+Requests to ``/old/legacy`` go to Flask. Everything else goes to
+Responder. When you've moved everything over, remove the mount.

docs/source/tutorial-middleware.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
+Writing Middleware
+=================
+
+Middleware sits between the server and your route handlers, processing
+every request and response that flows through your application. It's the
+right tool for cross-cutting concerns — things that apply to *all*
+requests, not just specific routes.
+
+Common middleware use cases:
+
+- Request logging and timing
+- Authentication and authorization
+- Adding security headers
+- Request ID generation
+- Rate limiting
+- Response compression (built-in)
+
+
+Hooks vs. Middleware
+--------------------
+
+Responder gives you two levels of request processing:
+
+**Hooks** (``before_request`` / ``after_request``) run inside Responder's
+routing layer. They receive Responder's ``req`` and ``resp`` objects and
+are the simplest way to add behavior::
+
+    @api.route(before_request=True)
+    def add_header(req, resp):
+        resp.headers["X-Powered-By"] = "Responder"
+
+    @api.after_request()
+    def log_request(req, resp):
+        print(f"{req.method} {req.url.path} -> {resp.status_code}")
+
+**Middleware** runs at the ASGI level, wrapping the entire application.
+It's more powerful but more complex — you work with raw ASGI scopes
+instead of Responder objects. Use middleware when you need to process
+requests *before* they reach Responder's routing, or when you need to
+integrate with Starlette middleware.
+
+
+Using Starlette Middleware
+--------------------------
+
+Responder is built on Starlette, so any Starlette middleware works
+out of the box::
+
+    from starlette.middleware.base import BaseHTTPMiddleware
+
+    class TimingMiddleware(BaseHTTPMiddleware):
+        async def dispatch(self, request, call_next):
+            import time
+            start = time.time()
+            response = await call_next(request)
+            duration = time.time() - start
+            response.headers["X-Response-Time"] = f"{duration:.3f}s"
+            return response
+
+    api.add_middleware(TimingMiddleware)
+
+The ``dispatch`` method receives a Starlette ``Request`` and a
+``call_next`` function. Call ``call_next(request)`` to pass the request
+to the next middleware (or to your route handler). The return value is
+a Starlette ``Response`` that you can modify before it's sent.
+
+
+Built-in Middleware
+-------------------
+
+Responder configures several middleware components automatically:
+
+- **GZipMiddleware** — compresses responses larger than 500 bytes
+- **TrustedHostMiddleware** — validates the ``Host`` header
+- **ServerErrorMiddleware** — catches unhandled exceptions
+- **ExceptionMiddleware** — routes exceptions to your handlers
+- **SessionMiddleware** — manages signed cookie sessions
+
+Optional middleware you can enable:
+
+- **CORSMiddleware** — ``api = responder.API(cors=True)``
+- **HTTPSRedirectMiddleware** — ``api = responder.API(enable_hsts=True)``
+
+
+Adding Third-Party Middleware
+-----------------------------
+
+Any ASGI middleware can be added with ``api.add_middleware()``::
+
+    from some_package import SomeMiddleware
+
+    api.add_middleware(SomeMiddleware, option1="value", option2=True)
+
+Keyword arguments are passed to the middleware's constructor.
+
+
+Middleware Order
+----------------
+
+Middleware wraps your application like layers of an onion. The *last*
+middleware added is the *outermost* layer — it sees the request first
+and the response last.
+
+Responder's built-in middleware stack (from outermost to innermost):
+
+1. SessionMiddleware
+2. ServerErrorMiddleware
+3. CORSMiddleware (if enabled)
+4. TrustedHostMiddleware
+5. HTTPSRedirectMiddleware (if enabled)
+6. GZipMiddleware
+7. ExceptionMiddleware
+8. Your routes
+
+When you call ``api.add_middleware()``, your middleware is added *outside*
+the existing stack. Keep this in mind for ordering dependencies — if
+middleware A depends on middleware B having run first, add B before A.
+
+
+When to Use What
+-----------------
+
+- **Simple header additions, logging, auth checks** → use hooks
+- **Response transformation, timing, third-party integrations** → use middleware
+- **Rate limiting** → use the built-in ``RateLimiter`` (it uses hooks internally)
+- **Request ID** → use ``api = responder.API(request_id=True)``
+
+Start with hooks. They're simpler and cover most cases. Graduate to
+middleware when hooks aren't enough.

docs/source/tutorial-rest.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,219 @@
+Building a REST API
+===================
+
+This tutorial walks you through building a complete REST API from scratch.
+By the end, you'll have a working API with CRUD operations, request
+validation, error handling, and interactive documentation.
+
+We'll build a simple book catalog — a service that lets you create, read,
+update, and delete books.
+
+
+Project Setup
+-------------
+
+Create a new file called ``app.py``::
+
+    import responder
+
+    api = responder.API(
+        title="Book Catalog",
+        version="1.0",
+        openapi="3.0.2",
+        docs_route="/docs",
+    )
+
+We're enabling OpenAPI documentation from the start. Visit ``/docs`` at
+any point to see interactive Swagger UI for your API.
+
+
+Define Your Models
+------------------
+
+We'll use `Pydantic <https://docs.pydantic.dev/>`_ to define our data
+models. Pydantic models serve double duty — they validate incoming data
+*and* generate OpenAPI schemas automatically::
+
+    from pydantic import BaseModel
+
+    class BookIn(BaseModel):
+        """What the client sends when creating a book."""
+        title: str
+        author: str
+        year: int
+        isbn: str | None = None
+
+    class Book(BaseModel):
+        """What the API returns."""
+        id: int
+        title: str
+        author: str
+        year: int
+        isbn: str | None = None
+
+``BookIn`` is the *input* model — it doesn't have an ``id`` because the
+server assigns that. ``Book`` is the *output* model — it includes
+everything. This input/output separation is a common REST API pattern.
+
+
+In-Memory Storage
+-----------------
+
+For this tutorial, we'll store books in a simple dict. In a real
+application, you'd use a database (see :doc:`tutorial-sqlalchemy`)::
+
+    books_db: dict[int, dict] = {}
+    next_id = 1
+
+
+List All Books
+--------------
+
+The first endpoint — list all books. This is a ``GET`` request to
+``/books``::
+
+    @api.route("/books", methods=["GET"], response_model=list)
+    def list_books(req, resp):
+        resp.media = list(books_db.values())
+
+In REST API design, ``GET`` requests should never modify data. They're
+*safe* and *idempotent* — calling them multiple times has the same effect
+as calling them once.
+
+
+Create a Book
+-------------
+
+To create a book, the client sends a ``POST`` request with a JSON body.
+We use ``request_model=BookIn`` to validate the input automatically — if
+the client sends bad data, they get a ``422`` response with error details::
+
+    @api.route("/books", methods=["POST"], check_existing=False,
+               request_model=BookIn, response_model=Book)
+    async def create_book(req, resp):
+        global next_id
+        data = await req.media()
+
+        book = {"id": next_id, **data}
+        books_db[next_id] = book
+        next_id += 1
+
+        resp.media = book
+        resp.status_code = 201
+
+Note ``resp.status_code = 201`` — the HTTP ``201 Created`` status code
+tells the client that a new resource was successfully created. This is
+more informative than a generic ``200 OK``.
+
+
+Get a Single Book
+-----------------
+
+Retrieve a specific book by its ID. The ``{book_id:int}`` route parameter
+ensures only integer IDs match — requests like ``/books/abc`` will 404::
+
+    @api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["GET"], response_model=Book)
+    def get_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+        if book_id not in books_db:
+            resp.status_code = 404
+            resp.media = {"error": f"Book {book_id} not found"}
+            return
+
+        resp.media = books_db[book_id]
+
+
+Update a Book
+-------------
+
+``PUT`` replaces a resource entirely. The client must send all fields::
+
+    @api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["PUT"], check_existing=False,
+               request_model=BookIn, response_model=Book)
+    async def update_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+        if book_id not in books_db:
+            resp.status_code = 404
+            resp.media = {"error": f"Book {book_id} not found"}
+            return
+
+        data = await req.media()
+        book = {"id": book_id, **data}
+        books_db[book_id] = book
+        resp.media = book
+
+
+Delete a Book
+-------------
+
+``DELETE`` removes a resource. The convention is to return ``204 No Content``
+with an empty body on success::
+
+    @api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["DELETE"], check_existing=False)
+    def delete_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+        if book_id not in books_db:
+            resp.status_code = 404
+            resp.media = {"error": f"Book {book_id} not found"}
+            return
+
+        del books_db[book_id]
+        resp.status_code = 204
+
+
+Error Handling
+--------------
+
+Let's add a custom error handler so any ``ValueError`` in our code returns
+a clean JSON response instead of a 500 error::
+
+    @api.exception_handler(ValueError)
+    async def handle_value_error(req, resp, exc):
+        resp.status_code = 400
+        resp.media = {"error": str(exc)}
+
+
+Run It
+------
+
+Add the standard entry point at the bottom of your file::
+
+    if __name__ == "__main__":
+        api.run()
+
+Start the server::
+
+    $ python app.py
+
+Visit ``http://localhost:5042/docs`` to see your interactive API
+documentation. You can test every endpoint directly from the browser.
+
+
+Try It Out
+----------
+
+Using ``curl``::
+
+    # Create a book
+    $ curl -X POST http://localhost:5042/books \
+        -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
+        -d '{"title": "Dune", "author": "Frank Herbert", "year": 1965}'
+
+    # List all books
+    $ curl http://localhost:5042/books
+
+    # Get a specific book
+    $ curl http://localhost:5042/books/1
+
+    # Update a book
+    $ curl -X PUT http://localhost:5042/books/1 \
+        -H "Content-Type: application/json" \
+        -d '{"title": "Dune", "author": "Frank Herbert", "year": 1965, "isbn": "978-0441172719"}'
+
+    # Delete a book
+    $ curl -X DELETE http://localhost:5042/books/1
+
+
+What's Next
+-----------
+
+This tutorial used in-memory storage. For a real application, you'll want
+a database. See :doc:`tutorial-sqlalchemy` for how to integrate SQLAlchemy
+with Responder using the lifespan pattern.

docs/source/tutorial-sqlalchemy.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,254 @@
+Using SQLAlchemy
+================
+
+Most real web applications need a database. This guide shows how to
+integrate `SQLAlchemy <https://www.sqlalchemy.org/>`_ with Responder,
+using async support and the lifespan pattern for connection management.
+
+SQLAlchemy is the most popular Python database toolkit. It gives you an
+ORM (Object-Relational Mapper) for working with databases using Python
+classes instead of raw SQL, plus a powerful query builder for when you
+need fine-grained control.
+
+
+Installation
+------------
+
+Install SQLAlchemy with async support and an async database driver.
+We'll use SQLite for simplicity, but the pattern works with PostgreSQL,
+MySQL, and any other database SQLAlchemy supports::
+
+    $ uv pip install 'sqlalchemy[asyncio]' aiosqlite
+
+
+Define Your Models
+------------------
+
+SQLAlchemy models map Python classes to database tables. Each attribute
+becomes a column::
+
+    # models.py
+    from sqlalchemy import Column, Integer, String
+    from sqlalchemy.orm import DeclarativeBase
+
+    class Base(DeclarativeBase):
+        pass
+
+    class Book(Base):
+        __tablename__ = "books"
+
+        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True, autoincrement=True)
+        title = Column(String, nullable=False)
+        author = Column(String, nullable=False)
+        year = Column(Integer, nullable=False)
+        isbn = Column(String, nullable=True)
+
+``DeclarativeBase`` is SQLAlchemy's modern base class (SQLAlchemy 2.0+).
+Each model class corresponds to a table, and each ``Column`` corresponds
+to a column in that table.
+
+
+Database Setup
+--------------
+
+Create the async engine and session factory. The *engine* manages
+the connection pool. The *session* is your unit of work — you use it to
+query and modify data within a transaction::
+
+    # database.py
+    from sqlalchemy.ext.asyncio import create_async_engine, async_sessionmaker
+
+    DATABASE_URL = "sqlite+aiosqlite:///./books.db"
+
+    engine = create_async_engine(DATABASE_URL, echo=True)
+    async_session = async_sessionmaker(engine, expire_on_commit=False)
+
+The ``echo=True`` flag prints all SQL queries to the console — very
+helpful during development, but you'll want to disable it in production.
+
+The ``expire_on_commit=False`` flag keeps model attributes accessible
+after a commit, which is convenient for returning created objects in
+API responses.
+
+
+Lifespan for Startup and Shutdown
+----------------------------------
+
+Use Responder's lifespan context manager to create the database tables
+on startup and dispose of connections on shutdown::
+
+    # app.py
+    from contextlib import asynccontextmanager
+    import responder
+    from database import engine
+    from models import Base
+
+    @asynccontextmanager
+    async def lifespan(app):
+        # Startup: create tables
+        async with engine.begin() as conn:
+            await conn.run_sync(Base.metadata.create_all)
+        yield
+        # Shutdown: close all connections
+        await engine.dispose()
+
+    api = responder.API(lifespan=lifespan)
+
+This is the proper way to manage database connections in an async
+application. The lifespan context manager ensures that:
+
+1. Tables are created before the first request
+2. The connection pool is properly closed when the server shuts down
+3. If table creation fails, the server won't start
+
+
+CRUD Endpoints
+--------------
+
+Now let's build the API endpoints. Each one opens a database session,
+does its work, and commits or rolls back::
+
+    from pydantic import BaseModel
+    from sqlalchemy import select
+    from database import async_session
+    from models import Book
+
+    # Pydantic models for request/response validation
+    class BookIn(BaseModel):
+        title: str
+        author: str
+        year: int
+        isbn: str | None = None
+
+    class BookOut(BaseModel):
+        id: int
+        title: str
+        author: str
+        year: int
+        isbn: str | None = None
+
+        class Config:
+            from_attributes = True
+
+The ``from_attributes = True`` config tells Pydantic to read data from
+SQLAlchemy model attributes (not just dicts). This lets you pass a
+SQLAlchemy ``Book`` object directly to ``BookOut``.
+
+**List all books**::
+
+    @api.route("/books", methods=["GET"])
+    async def list_books(req, resp):
+        async with async_session() as session:
+            result = await session.execute(select(Book))
+            books = result.scalars().all()
+            resp.media = [BookOut.model_validate(b).model_dump() for b in books]
+
+**Create a book**::
+
+    @api.route("/books", methods=["POST"], check_existing=False,
+               request_model=BookIn, response_model=BookOut)
+    async def create_book(req, resp):
+        data = await req.media()
+
+        async with async_session() as session:
+            book = Book(**data)
+            session.add(book)
+            await session.commit()
+            await session.refresh(book)
+            resp.media = BookOut.model_validate(book).model_dump()
+            resp.status_code = 201
+
+**Get a single book**::
+
+    @api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["GET"])
+    async def get_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+        async with async_session() as session:
+            book = await session.get(Book, book_id)
+            if book is None:
+                resp.status_code = 404
+                resp.media = {"error": "Book not found"}
+                return
+            resp.media = BookOut.model_validate(book).model_dump()
+
+**Update a book**::
+
+    @api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["PUT"], check_existing=False,
+               request_model=BookIn)
+    async def update_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+        data = await req.media()
+
+        async with async_session() as session:
+            book = await session.get(Book, book_id)
+            if book is None:
+                resp.status_code = 404
+                resp.media = {"error": "Book not found"}
+                return
+
+            for key, value in data.items():
+                setattr(book, key, value)
+
+            await session.commit()
+            await session.refresh(book)
+            resp.media = BookOut.model_validate(book).model_dump()
+
+**Delete a book**::
+
+    @api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["DELETE"], check_existing=False)
+    async def delete_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+        async with async_session() as session:
+            book = await session.get(Book, book_id)
+            if book is None:
+                resp.status_code = 404
+                resp.media = {"error": "Book not found"}
+                return
+
+            await session.delete(book)
+            await session.commit()
+            resp.status_code = 204
+
+
+Run It
+------
+
+::
+
+    if __name__ == "__main__":
+        api.run()
+
+Start the server and you'll see SQLAlchemy's SQL echo in the console.
+The SQLite database file ``books.db`` is created automatically on first
+startup.
+
+
+Using PostgreSQL
+----------------
+
+To switch to PostgreSQL, just change the connection URL and driver::
+
+    $ uv pip install asyncpg
+
+::
+
+    DATABASE_URL = "postgresql+asyncpg://user:pass@localhost/mydb"
+
+Everything else stays the same. SQLAlchemy abstracts the database
+differences so your application code doesn't need to change.
+
+
+Tips
+----
+
+- Use ``async with async_session() as session`` for every request.
+  Don't share sessions across requests — each request should get its
+  own session and transaction.
+
+- For complex queries, use SQLAlchemy's ``select()`` with ``.where()``,
+  ``.order_by()``, ``.limit()``, and ``.offset()`` — it composes
+  naturally.
+
+- In production, use connection pooling (SQLAlchemy does this by
+  default) and set pool size limits appropriate for your database.
+
+- Consider `Alembic <https://alembic.sqlalchemy.org/>`_ for database
+  migrations — it tracks schema changes over time so you can evolve
+  your database without losing data.

docs/source/tutorial-websockets.rst

@@ -0,0 +1,171 @@
+WebSocket Tutorial
+==================
+
+HTTP is request-response — the client asks, the server answers, and the
+connection closes. WebSockets upgrade that into a persistent, bidirectional
+channel where both sides can send messages at any time. This is what powers
+chat apps, live dashboards, multiplayer games, and collaborative editors.
+
+This tutorial builds a simple chat room to show how WebSockets work in
+Responder.
+
+
+How WebSockets Work
+-------------------
+
+1. The client sends a normal HTTP request with an ``Upgrade: websocket``
+   header.
+2. The server accepts the upgrade and the connection switches protocols.
+3. Both sides can now send messages freely — no more request/response.
+4. Either side can close the connection at any time.
+
+In Responder, WebSocket routes receive a ``ws`` object instead of
+``req`` and ``resp``. The ``ws`` object has methods for accepting the
+connection, sending and receiving data, and closing.
+
+
+Echo Server
+-----------
+
+The simplest WebSocket — echoes everything back::
+
+    @api.route("/ws", websocket=True)
+    async def echo(ws):
+        await ws.accept()
+        while True:
+            data = await ws.receive_text()
+            await ws.send_text(f"Echo: {data}")
+
+The ``await ws.accept()`` call completes the WebSocket handshake. After
+that, you're in a loop — receive a message, send a response.
+
+Test it with a WebSocket client::
+
+    $ pip install websocket-client
+    $ python -c "
+    import websocket
+    ws = websocket.create_connection('ws://localhost:5042/ws')
+    ws.send('hello')
+    print(ws.recv())  # Echo: hello
+    ws.close()
+    "
+
+
+Chat Room
+---------
+
+A chat room needs to broadcast messages to all connected clients. We keep
+a set of active connections and iterate through them when someone sends
+a message::
+
+    connected = set()
+
+    @api.route("/chat", websocket=True)
+    async def chat(ws):
+        await ws.accept()
+        connected.add(ws)
+        try:
+            while True:
+                message = await ws.receive_text()
+                # Broadcast to all connected clients
+                for client in connected:
+                    await client.send_text(message)
+        except Exception:
+            pass
+        finally:
+            connected.discard(ws)
+
+The ``try/finally`` block ensures we remove disconnected clients from
+the set, even if the connection drops unexpectedly.
+
+
+Data Formats
+------------
+
+WebSockets support three data formats:
+
+**Text** — plain strings::
+
+    await ws.send_text("hello")
+    message = await ws.receive_text()
+
+**JSON** — auto-serialized Python objects::
+
+    await ws.send_json({"type": "update", "data": [1, 2, 3]})
+    message = await ws.receive_json()
+
+**Binary** — raw bytes, useful for images, audio, or custom protocols::
+
+    await ws.send_bytes(b"\x00\x01\x02")
+    data = await ws.receive_bytes()
+
+
+HTML Client
+-----------
+
+Here's a minimal HTML page that connects to the chat room. The browser's
+built-in ``WebSocket`` API handles everything — no libraries needed:
+
+.. code-block:: html
+
+    <!DOCTYPE html>
+    <html>
+    <body>
+      <div id="messages"></div>
+      <input id="input" placeholder="Type a message..." />
+      <script>
+        const ws = new WebSocket("ws://localhost:5042/chat");
+        const messages = document.getElementById("messages");
+        const input = document.getElementById("input");
+
+        ws.onmessage = (event) => {
+          const p = document.createElement("p");
+          p.textContent = event.data;
+          messages.appendChild(p);
+        };
+
+        input.addEventListener("keypress", (e) => {
+          if (e.key === "Enter") {
+            ws.send(input.value);
+            input.value = "";
+          }
+        });
+      </script>
+    </body>
+    </html>
+
+Save this as ``static/index.html`` and serve it with Responder's
+built-in static file support.
+
+
+Before-Request Hooks for WebSockets
+------------------------------------
+
+You can run code before a WebSocket connection is established, just like
+HTTP before-request hooks. This is useful for authentication::
+
+    @api.before_request(websocket=True)
+    async def ws_auth(ws):
+        # Check for a token in the query string
+        # (WebSocket headers are limited in browsers)
+        await ws.accept()
+
+WebSocket before-request hooks receive the ``ws`` object and must call
+``await ws.accept()`` if they want the connection to proceed.
+
+
+Testing WebSockets
+------------------
+
+Use Starlette's ``TestClient`` for WebSocket tests::
+
+    from starlette.testclient import TestClient
+
+    def test_echo():
+        client = TestClient(api)
+        with client.websocket_connect("/ws") as ws:
+            ws.send_text("hello")
+            assert ws.receive_text() == "Echo: hello"
+
+The ``websocket_connect`` context manager handles the connection
+lifecycle — it connects on enter and disconnects on exit.

examples/rest_api.py

@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+# Complete REST API example with Pydantic validation.
+# https://responder.kennethreitz.org/tutorial-rest.html
+import responder
+from pydantic import BaseModel
+
+
+class BookIn(BaseModel):
+    title: str
+    author: str
+    year: int
+    isbn: str | None = None
+
+
+class BookOut(BaseModel):
+    id: int
+    title: str
+    author: str
+    year: int
+    isbn: str | None = None
+
+
+api = responder.API(
+    title="Book Catalog",
+    version="1.0",
+    openapi="3.0.2",
+    docs_route="/docs",
+)
+
+books_db: dict[int, dict] = {}
+next_id = 1
+
+
+@api.route("/books", methods=["GET"])
+def list_books(req, resp):
+    resp.media = list(books_db.values())
+
+
+@api.route("/books", methods=["POST"], check_existing=False,
+           request_model=BookIn, response_model=BookOut)
+async def create_book(req, resp):
+    global next_id
+    data = await req.media()
+    book = {"id": next_id, **data}
+    books_db[next_id] = book
+    next_id += 1
+    resp.media = book
+    resp.status_code = 201
+
+
+@api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["GET"])
+def get_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+    if book_id not in books_db:
+        resp.status_code = 404
+        resp.media = {"error": f"Book {book_id} not found"}
+        return
+    resp.media = books_db[book_id]
+
+
+@api.route("/books/{book_id:int}", methods=["DELETE"], check_existing=False)
+def delete_book(req, resp, *, book_id):
+    if book_id not in books_db:
+        resp.status_code = 404
+        resp.media = {"error": f"Book {book_id} not found"}
+        return
+    del books_db[book_id]
+    resp.status_code = 204
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    api.run()

examples/sse_stream.py

@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+# Server-Sent Events streaming example.
+# https://responder.kennethreitz.org/tour.html#server-sent-events-sse
+import asyncio
+
+import responder
+
+api = responder.API()
+
+
+@api.route("/")
+def index(req, resp):
+    resp.html = """
+    <!DOCTYPE html>
+    <html>
+    <body>
+      <h1>SSE Stream</h1>
+      <div id="events"></div>
+      <script>
+        const source = new EventSource("/stream");
+        const events = document.getElementById("events");
+        source.onmessage = (e) => {
+          const p = document.createElement("p");
+          p.textContent = e.data;
+          events.appendChild(p);
+        };
+      </script>
+    </body>
+    </html>
+    """
+
+
+@api.route("/stream")
+async def stream(req, resp):
+    @resp.sse
+    async def events():
+        for i in range(20):
+            yield {"data": f"Event #{i}"}
+            await asyncio.sleep(0.5)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    api.run()

examples/websocket_chat.py

@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+# WebSocket chat room example.
+# https://responder.kennethreitz.org/tutorial-websockets.html
+import responder
+
+api = responder.API()
+
+connected = set()
+
+
+@api.route("/")
+def index(req, resp):
+    resp.html = """
+    <!DOCTYPE html>
+    <html>
+    <body>
+      <h1>Chat Room</h1>
+      <div id="messages" style="height:300px;overflow-y:scroll;border:1px solid #ccc;padding:10px;"></div>
+      <input id="input" placeholder="Type a message..." style="width:300px;" />
+      <script>
+        const ws = new WebSocket(`ws://${location.host}/chat`);
+        const messages = document.getElementById("messages");
+        const input = document.getElementById("input");
+        ws.onmessage = (e) => {
+          const p = document.createElement("p");
+          p.textContent = e.data;
+          messages.appendChild(p);
+          messages.scrollTop = messages.scrollHeight;
+        };
+        input.addEventListener("keypress", (e) => {
+          if (e.key === "Enter" && input.value) {
+            ws.send(input.value);
+            input.value = "";
+          }
+        });
+      </script>
+    </body>
+    </html>
+    """
+
+
+@api.route("/chat", websocket=True)
+async def chat(ws):
+    await ws.accept()
+    connected.add(ws)
+    try:
+        while True:
+            message = await ws.receive_text()
+            for client in connected:
+                await client.send_text(message)
+    except Exception:
+        pass
+    finally:
+        connected.discard(ws)
+
+
+if __name__ == "__main__":
+    api.run()

pyproject.toml

@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ license = {text = "Apache 2.0"}
 authors = [
   { name = "Kenneth Reitz", email = "me@kennethreitz.org" },
 ]
-requires-python = ">=3.9"
+requires-python = ">=3.10"
 classifiers = [
   "Development Status :: 5 - Production/Stable",
   "Environment :: Web Environment",
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@ classifiers = [
   "Operating System :: OS Independent",
   "Programming Language :: Python",
   "Programming Language :: Python :: 3",
-  "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.9",
   "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.10",
   "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.11",
   "Programming Language :: Python :: 3.12",
@@ -42,7 +41,7 @@ dependencies = [
   "pueblo[sfa-full]>=0.0.11",
   "pydantic>=2",
   "python-multipart",
-  "starlette[full]>=0.40",
+  "starlette[full]>=1.0",
   "uvicorn[standard]",
 ]
 

responder/__version__.py

@@ -1 +1 @@
-__version__ = "3.2.0"
+__version__ = "3.4.0"

responder/api.py

@@ -61,6 +61,31 @@ class API:
         lifespan=None,
         request_id=False,
     ):
+        """Create a new Responder API instance.
+
+        :param debug: If ``True``, enable debug mode with verbose error pages.
+        :param title: The title of the API, used in OpenAPI documentation.
+        :param version: The version string for the API (e.g. ``"1.0"``).
+        :param description: A longer description of the API for OpenAPI docs.
+        :param terms_of_service: URL to the API's terms of service.
+        :param contact: Contact information dict for the API (``name``, ``url``, ``email``).
+        :param license: License information dict (``name``, ``url``).
+        :param openapi: The OpenAPI version string (e.g. ``"3.0.2"``). Enables OpenAPI schema generation.
+        :param openapi_route: The URL path for the OpenAPI schema (default ``"/schema.yml"``).
+        :param static_dir: Directory for static files. Set to ``None`` to disable. Created automatically if missing.
+        :param static_route: URL prefix for serving static files (default ``"/static"``).
+        :param templates_dir: Directory for Jinja2 templates (default ``"templates"``).
+        :param auto_escape: If ``True``, auto-escape HTML/XML in templates.
+        :param secret_key: Secret key for signing cookie-based sessions. **Always set this in production.**
+        :param enable_hsts: If ``True``, redirect all HTTP requests to HTTPS.
+        :param docs_route: URL path for interactive API docs (e.g. ``"/docs"``). Enables OpenAPI if not already set.
+        :param cors: If ``True``, enable CORS middleware.
+        :param cors_params: Dict of CORS configuration (``allow_origins``, ``allow_methods``, etc.).
+        :param allowed_hosts: List of allowed hostnames (e.g. ``["example.com"]``). Defaults to ``["*"]``.
+        :param openapi_theme: Documentation UI theme: ``"swagger_ui"``, ``"redoc"``, ``"rapidoc"``, or ``"elements"``.
+        :param lifespan: An async context manager for startup/shutdown logic.
+        :param request_id: If ``True``, add ``X-Request-ID`` headers to all responses.
+        """  # noqa: E501
         self.background = BackgroundQueue()
 
         self.secret_key = secret_key
@@ -150,12 +175,30 @@ class API:
 
     @property
     def static_app(self):
+        """The Starlette ``StaticFiles`` application for serving static assets."""
         if not hasattr(self, "_static_app"):
             assert self.static_dir is not None
             self._static_app = StaticFiles(directory=self.static_dir)
         return self._static_app
 
     def before_request(self, websocket=False):
+        """Register a function to run before every request.
+
+        If the hook sets ``resp.status_code``, the route handler is skipped
+        and the response is sent immediately (short-circuiting).
+
+        :param websocket: If ``True``, register as a WebSocket before-request hook instead of HTTP.
+
+        Usage::
+
+            @api.before_request()
+            def check_auth(req, resp):
+                if "Authorization" not in req.headers:
+                    resp.status_code = 401
+                    resp.media = {"error": "unauthorized"}
+
+        """  # noqa: E501
+
         def decorator(f):
             self.router.before_request(f, websocket=websocket)
             return f
@@ -180,6 +223,21 @@ class API:
         return decorator
 
     def add_middleware(self, middleware_cls, **middleware_config):
+        """Add ASGI middleware to the application.
+
+        Middleware wraps the entire application and can inspect or modify
+        every request and response. Middleware is applied in reverse order —
+        the last middleware added runs first.
+
+        :param middleware_cls: A Starlette-compatible middleware class.
+        :param middleware_config: Keyword arguments passed to the middleware constructor.
+
+        Usage::
+
+            from starlette.middleware.httpsredirect import HTTPSRedirectMiddleware
+            api.add_middleware(HTTPSRedirectMiddleware)
+
+        """
         self.app = middleware_cls(self.app, **middleware_config)
 
     def exception_handler(self, exception_cls):
@@ -501,6 +559,10 @@ class API:
         uvicorn.run(self, host=address, port=port, **options)
 
     def run(self, **kwargs):
+        """Run the application. Shorthand for :meth:`serve` that inherits the ``debug`` setting.
+
+        :param kwargs: Keyword arguments passed through to :meth:`serve`.
+        """
         if "debug" not in kwargs:
             kwargs.update({"debug": self.debug})
         self.serve(**kwargs)

responder/background.py

@@ -9,7 +9,33 @@ __all__ = ["BackgroundQueue"]
 
 
 class BackgroundQueue:
+    """A queue for running tasks in background threads.
+
+    Uses a ``ThreadPoolExecutor`` sized to the number of CPUs. Access it
+    via ``api.background``.
+
+    Usage::
+
+        # As a decorator — fire and forget
+        @api.background.task
+        def send_email(to, subject):
+            ...
+
+        send_email("user@example.com", "Hello")
+
+        # Direct submission
+        future = api.background.run(send_email, "user@example.com", "Hello")
+
+        # As a callable (supports async functions)
+        await api.background(send_email, "user@example.com", "Hello")
+
+    """
+
     def __init__(self, n=None):
+        """Create a new background queue.
+
+        :param n: Number of worker threads. Defaults to CPU count.
+        """
         if n is None:
             n = multiprocessing.cpu_count()
 
@@ -18,11 +44,24 @@ class BackgroundQueue:
         self.results = []
 
     def run(self, f, *args, **kwargs):
+        """Submit a function to run in a background thread.
+
+        :param f: The function to run.
+        :returns: A ``concurrent.futures.Future`` for the result.
+        """
         f = self.pool.submit(f, *args, **kwargs)
         self.results.append(f)
         return f
 
     def task(self, f):
+        """Decorator that wraps a function to run in the background thread pool.
+
+        The decorated function returns a ``Future`` instead of blocking.
+        Exceptions are printed to stderr via traceback.
+
+        :param f: The function to wrap.
+        """
+
         def on_future_done(fs):
             try:
                 fs.result()

responder/models.py

@@ -49,6 +49,12 @@ class CaseInsensitiveDict(dict):
 
 
 class QueryDict(dict):
+    """A dictionary for query string parameters that handles multi-value keys.
+
+    Single-value access returns the last value for a key. Use :meth:`get_list`
+    to retrieve all values for a multi-value parameter.
+    """
+
     def __init__(self, query_string):
         self.update(parse_qs(query_string))
 
@@ -117,6 +123,13 @@ class QueryDict(dict):
 
 
 class Request:
+    """An HTTP request, passed to each view as the first argument.
+
+    Provides access to headers, cookies, query parameters, the request body,
+    session data, and more. Most properties are synchronous; reading the body
+    (via :attr:`content`, :attr:`text`, or :meth:`media`) requires ``await``.
+    """
+
     __slots__ = [
         "_starlette",
         "formats",
@@ -153,6 +166,7 @@ class Request:
 
     @property
     def mimetype(self):
+        """The MIME type of the request body, from the ``Content-Type`` header."""
         return self.headers.get("Content-Type", "")
 
     @property
@@ -270,6 +284,7 @@ class Request:
 
     @property
     def is_secure(self):
+        """``True`` if the request was made over HTTPS."""
         return self.url.scheme == "https"
 
     def accepts(self, content_type):
@@ -315,6 +330,22 @@ def content_setter(mimetype):
 
 
 class Response:
+    """An HTTP response, passed to each view as the second argument.
+
+    Mutate this object to control what gets sent back to the client. Set
+    :attr:`text`, :attr:`html`, :attr:`media`, or :attr:`content` to define
+    the body. Use :attr:`headers` and :meth:`set_cookie` to control metadata.
+
+    :var text: Set the response body as plain text (sets ``Content-Type: text/plain``).
+    :var html: Set the response body as HTML (sets ``Content-Type: text/html``).
+    :var media: Set a Python object (dict, list) to be serialized as JSON (or negotiated format).
+    :var content: Set the raw response body as bytes.
+    :var status_code: The HTTP status code (e.g. ``200``, ``404``). Defaults to ``200`` if not set.
+    :var headers: A dict of response headers.
+    :var cookies: A ``SimpleCookie`` holding cookies to set on the response.
+    :var session: A dict of session data. Changes are persisted in a signed cookie.
+    """  # noqa: E501
+
     __slots__ = [
         "req",
         "status_code",
@@ -334,23 +365,34 @@ class Response:
 
     def __init__(self, req, *, formats):
         self.req = req
-        #: The HTTP Status Code to use for the Response.
         self.status_code: int | None = None
-        self.content = None  #: A bytes representation of the response body.
+        self.content = None
         self.mimetype = None
         self.encoding = DEFAULT_ENCODING
-        self.media = None  #: A Python object that will be content-negotiated and
-        #: sent back to the client. Typically, in JSON formatting.
+        self.media = None
         self._stream = None
-        self.headers = {}  #: A Python dictionary of ``{key: value}``,
-        #: representing the headers of the response.
+        self.headers = {}
         self.formats = formats
-        self.cookies: SimpleCookie = SimpleCookie()  #: The cookies set in the Response
-        self.session = (
-            req.session
-        )  #: The cookie-based session data, in dict form, to add to the Response.
+        self.cookies: SimpleCookie = SimpleCookie()
+        self.session = req.session
 
     def stream(self, func, *args, **kwargs):
+        """Set up a streaming response from an async generator function.
+
+        The generator yields chunks of bytes that are sent to the client
+        as they are produced, without buffering the full response in memory.
+
+        Usage::
+
+            @api.route("/stream")
+            async def stream_data(req, resp):
+                @resp.stream
+                async def body():
+                    for i in range(10):
+                        yield f"chunk {i}\\n".encode()
+
+        :param func: An async generator function that yields response chunks.
+        """
         assert inspect.isasyncgenfunction(func)
 
         self._stream = functools.partial(func, *args, **kwargs)
@@ -451,6 +493,12 @@ class Response:
             self.mimetype = guessed or "application/octet-stream"
 
     def redirect(self, location, *, set_text=True, status_code=HTTP_301):
+        """Redirect the client to a different URL.
+
+        :param location: The URL to redirect to.
+        :param set_text: If ``True``, set a default redirect message as the body.
+        :param status_code: The HTTP status code (default ``301``).
+        """
         self.status_code = status_code
         if set_text:
             self.text = f"Redirecting to: {location}"
@@ -496,6 +544,25 @@ class Response:
         secure=False,
         httponly=True,
     ):
+        """Set a cookie on the response with full control over directives.
+
+        :param key: The cookie name.
+        :param value: The cookie value.
+        :param expires: Expiration date string (e.g. ``"Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT"``).
+        :param path: URL path the cookie applies to (default ``"/"``).
+        :param domain: Domain the cookie is valid for.
+        :param max_age: Maximum age in seconds before the cookie expires.
+        :param secure: If ``True``, cookie is only sent over HTTPS.
+        :param httponly: If ``True`` (default), cookie is inaccessible to JavaScript.
+
+        Usage::
+
+            resp.set_cookie(
+                "token", value="abc123",
+                max_age=3600, secure=True, httponly=True,
+            )
+
+        """
         self.cookies[key] = value
         morsel = self.cookies[key]
         if expires is not None:
@@ -534,10 +601,12 @@ class Response:
 
     @property
     def ok(self):
+        """``True`` if the status code is in the 2xx range (success)."""
         return 200 <= self.status_code_safe < 300
 
     @property
     def status_code_safe(self) -> int:
+        """Return the status code, raising ``RuntimeError`` if it hasn't been set."""
         if self.status_code is None:
             raise RuntimeError("HTTP status code has not been defined")
         return self.status_code

responder/routes.py

@@ -62,6 +62,12 @@ class BaseRoute:
 
 
 class Route(BaseRoute):
+    """An HTTP route that maps a URL pattern to an endpoint.
+
+    Supports path parameters with type convertors (``{id:int}``, ``{slug:str}``,
+    ``{pk:uuid}``, ``{value:float}``, ``{rest:path}``).
+    """
+
     def __init__(self, route, endpoint, *, before_request=False, methods=None):
         assert route.startswith("/"), "Route path must start with '/'"
         self.route = route
@@ -197,6 +203,8 @@ class Route(BaseRoute):
 
 
 class WebSocketRoute(BaseRoute):
+    """A WebSocket route that maps a URL pattern to a WebSocket handler."""
+
     def __init__(self, route, endpoint, *, before_request=False):
         assert route.startswith("/"), "Route path must start with '/'"
         self.route = route
@@ -253,6 +261,12 @@ class WebSocketRoute(BaseRoute):
 
 
 class Router:
+    """The core router that dispatches incoming requests to matching routes.
+
+    Handles route matching, before/after request hooks, lifespan events,
+    and mounted sub-applications.
+    """
+
     def __init__(
         self, routes=None, default_response=None, before_requests=None, lifespan=None
     ):